Publicacions diverses
"Domingo Fletcher Valls" Prehistory Museum
Bernat Martí Oliver
1995
, ISBN 84-7795-992-7
978-84-7795-992-2 , 157 p.
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"Domingo Fletcher Valls"
PREHISTORY MUSEUM
VALENCIA PROVINCIAL COUNCIL
1995
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DIPUTACIÓN DE VALENCIA
President
Manuel Taranc6n Fandos
Deputy-President for the Cultural Area
A11tonio Lis Darder
Director of the La Beneficencia Cultural Centre
Manuel Muñoz Ibáñez
S.I.P and Prehistory Museum Director
Bernat Martf Oliver
Design and layout
Francesc Chiner Vives
Photographs
José Manuel Gil-Caries
S.I.P Archive
Cover
Francesc Chiner Vives
English version by:
Simon Stepney
Printed by
Textos i Imatges, S.A.L.
Tel.: 342 23 15- Valencia
Thls book on the Prehlstory Museum was written to
mark the reopening of exhibition rooms at the La
Beneficencia Cultural Centre. The book was prepared, on behalf of the S.I.P. and the Prehlstory Museum, by a team comprising Bernat Martí Oliver,
Helena Bonet Rosado, Joaquim Juan Cabanilles, Ma
Jesús de Pedro Michó and Rafael Pérez Mínguez.
The responsibility for the scientific conclusions
drawn in these texts lies entirely with the authors of
thls work. Graphlc documentation was undertaken
by Francesc Chiner Vives, materials were restored
by Inocencio Sarrión Montañana; objects pertaining
to collections were transferred by Rafael Pérez
Mínguez, Rafael Fambuena Lucía and José Martí
Ferriol; graphic archives, Mª Teresa Clemente Hermosilla. Other members of the S.I.P., in acÍdition to
Eva Ripollés Adelantando and Pere Guillem Calatayud, ha ve also been of help.
ISBN: 84-7795-992-7
D.L.: V-4250-1996
© The Authors and S.I.P-Museo de Prehistoria
The S.I.P. acknowledges the collaboration of Domffigo Fletcher Valls (t), Lorenzo Abad Casal, Feuan Arasa Gil, Rafael Azuar Ruiz, Ernestina Badal
Garcia, Joan Bemabeu Aubán, Joan Cardona Escrivá, Pilar Caunona González, Emili Cortell Pérez, Enrique Díes Cusí, Michelle Dupré Ollivier,
Rosa Enguix Alemany, Vicent Escriva Torres, Josep Fernández Peris, Milagros Folgado López, Luz Fockedey, Javier Portea Pérez, Pilar Fumanal
Garcia, Antonio Garcia Menárguez, José A. Gisbert Santonja, Carlos Gómez Bellard, Francesc Gusi Je ner, Laura Hemández Alcaraz, Emilia Hernández Hervás, Isabel Izquierdo Peraile, Paula Jardón Giner, José L. Jiménez Salvador, Empar Juan Navarro, Vicent Lerma Alegria, José A. López
Mira, Enrique Llobregat Conesa, José M. Martínez García, José V. Martínez Perona, Rafael Martínez Valle, Pilar Mas Hurtuna, Manuel Oleína
Doménech, Teresa Orozco Kohler, Josep Ll. Pascual Benito, Ignacio Pastor Cubillo, Albert Ribera Lacomba, Miquel Rosselló Mesquida, Angel Sánchez Molina, Gloria Sanchis Clement, José M. Segura Martí, José L. Simón Garcia, Jorge Soler Dfaz, Miguel Vicente Gabarda and Lluís Zalbidea
Gómez, as well as the Prehistory and Archaeology Departments of the Universities of Valencia and Alicante, the Archaeological Museums of Alicante, DE~nia, Sagunt, Alcoi, Gandia, Villena, Elx, Santa Pola and Jaén, the National Archaeology Museum of Madrid, Servei d'Investigacions
Arqueologiques i Prehistoriques de Castelló, Conjunt Monumental d'Empúries and the National Cerarnics Museum of Valencia.
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"Domingo Fletcher Valls"
PREHISTORY MUSEUM
by
BERNAT MARTÍ O LIVER
with the collaboration of
CARMEN ÁRANEGUI GASCÓ, HELENA BONET ROSADO,
PIERRE GUÉRIN fOCKEDEY, MAURO S. H ERNÁNDEZ PÉREZ,
JOAQUIM JUAN CABANILLES, M 2 DEL MAR LLORENS fORCADA,
CONSUELO MATA PARREÑO, M 2 JESÚS DE PEDRO MICHÓ,
PERE PAU RIPOLLÉS ALEGRE AND VALENTÍN VILLAVERDE BONILLA.
Translated by
SIMON STEPNEY
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INTRODUCTION
In the long and fruitful history of the Prehistory Research Ser vice (S.I.P.) and
the Prehistory Museum of the Valencia Provincial Council, we can now affirm
with deep satisfaction that we ha ve begun a new stage. Quite a few years ha ve
passed since the year 1982, when the archaeological materials then on exhibit at
the present-day headquarters of the Council, the Batlia Palace, were patiently
and carefully removed from their cases and transferred to a new btúlding
known as the Casa de Beneficencia (Valencia's 'Charity 1-louse'). Botl1 hopes
and concerns were voiced to similar degrees at tl\e time of the move, as the
sheer magnitude of the undertaking was evident to all. Only now, at the end of
the road, is it possible to say with surety that it was thoroughly worth the effort.
Throughout all this time, and ever since its creation in 1927, the Prehistory
Museum has actively maintained its research activities and its concern for the
protection and preservation of our archaeological heritage. Above all, it has
made every effort to continue to be a forum in which members of Valencian
society can come face to face with our important archaeological heritage. Out
of this concern, and tl1rough the support of the Provincial Council, all the exhibits dedicated to varying periods of our prehistory have successively come
into being, following a waiting period wlúch has now been brought toa happy
conclusion. And this same concern and support gave rise to the privileged
framework of the Prehistory Museum today in the La Beneficencia Cultural
Centre, where the footprints left behind by our forebears again s hine under tl1e
soft lights of our rekindled interest, after various hundreds of thousands of
years ha ve utterly changed the face of our lands.
The archaeological collections and the intense labours of the Prehistory
Research Service and the Prelústory Musew11 are now being associated with the
name of Domingo Fletcl1er Valls, under whose directorship the Museum
achieved its maximum splendour. It is in his memory that we want to fuse together so many efforts undertaken for the benefit of our archaeological heritage,
made by a great number of scholars, and al! tl1ose who ha ve felt a kinslúp witl1
this institution over the length and breadth of the Valencian region, from the
museum's founder Isidro Ballester Tormo to its last director Enrique Pla
Ballester, and so many, many others. We tl1erefore have a valuable heritage before us in which aspirations and endeavours have been fully intertwined, a heritage we all feel to be part of ourselves, and of which we can feel rightfully pro ud.
MANUELTARANCÓNFANDOS
President of the Valencia Provincial Council
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FOREWORD
The Prehistory Museum of the Valencia Provincial Council occupies a prominent position among our cultural institutions. Characterized by rigorous
work methods and remaining faithful to its threefold concern to conserve,
study and promote our archaeological heritage, the museum's special interest
in presenting us with all its collections has led to that marvellous reality wlúch
has now been inaugurated. The new exhibition rooms of the Prehistory Museum, the fruit of long labours made by a group of Valencian researchers who
combined their forces at the Prehistory Research Service in 1927, now give us
a close-up view of the life and labours of the first human societies living in this
territory thousands of years ago. Mixed in with the surprise and admiration
that archaeological collectíons always seem to produce, the names of important
settlements contribute to the creation of a complete tour of Valencia's geography, while the major milestones in the development of human society take
concrete forms and contents that change with the times to produce new material cultures and artistic creations, providing us witi't a basis for understanding
or at least for the enjoyrnent of the aesthetics presented by these fruits of
prehistoric man's achievements. They also inspire us to make new efforts to
protect and preserve such a fragile heritage from the past.
This concern to provide an appropriate showcase for all members of Valendan society, from the smallest schoolchild capable of discovering the vast
expanses of time occupied by man's past, to the trained expert seeking to deepen his or her knowledge of the past, is the main characteristic of this institution,
which now crosses a new threshold wlúle maintaining its traditionalline of
development. This is a major motive for satisfaction at the Cultural Area of the
Valencia Provincial Council, as we feel we are part of this effort which has enabled these excellent new installations at the La Beneficencia Cultural Centre
to be used by the museum, offering an appropriate framework in which we can
conveniently re-encounter our past and enjoyan important culturallegacy that
goes back from late Roman times into the depths of time.
ANTONIO LIS DARDER
Deputy-President for the Cultural Area
of the Valencia Provincial Council
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CONTENTS
THE S.I.P AND ITS PREHISTORY MUSEUM
13
THE EXHIDITION ROOMS
18
FJRST FLOOR
19
l.
Valencian Archaeology
21
II.
Lower and Middle Palaeolithic: The First h1habitants
25
ill.
The Upper Palaeolithic: The Master Hunters
33
IV.
Palaeolithic Art: Animals and Signs
45
V.
The Mesolithic: The Last Hunters
53
VI.
The Neolithic: The First Farmers
57
VII.
Post-Palaeolithic Art: Images and Beliefs
69
VIII.
The Aeneolithic: The Copper Age
73
IX.
The Brot1Ze Age: The Diversity of Cultures
83
91
SECOND Fl..OOR
l.
The Mediterranean World
93
ll.
The Iberians: One Culture, Many Settlements
97
ID.
Large Iberian Settlements and their Surroundings: Economic Aspects
103
IV.
The Iberian Home
109
V.
Iberian Funeral Rites and Religion
113
VI.
El Tossal de Sant Miquel: The City of Edeta and its Environs
121
VII.
Iberian Writing
129
VIII.
Iberian Coins
133
IX.
The Roman Epoch
137
X.
Numismatics: Valendan Finds from the 10th-11th Centuries
149
BIBLJOGRAPHY
155
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Exhibition rooms in tbe Prehistory
Museum
THE S.I.P. AND ITS PREHISTORY MUSEUM
Prehistory Research Service (S.I.P.) and the Prehistory Museum are two inseparable parts of the same
institution whose origins go back to 1927, when a
smaJJ group of people interested in Valencia's archaeologica1 heritage contributed to its creation under the
auspices of the Diputnci6n, the Valencia Provincial
Council. The principie promotor of the institution was
Isidro Ballester Tormo, who gave a clear outline of the
course to be followed by these two sides of the same
coin: first the S.I.P., with its efforts, excavations, studies and publications, wouJd bring about the growth
of the Prehistory Museum, and later, when the Museuro had become an operative reality, it wouJd be this
body which would serve as the framework for the
S.I.P.
The decades prior to 1927 had witnessed a gradual
increase in the number of archaeological excavations
being undertaken in Valencia, particuJarly from the
time these were regulated in 1912 by the Higher
Council for Excavations and Antiquities. It was
therefore necessary to create a centre, like those
already formed in Madrid and Barcelona, providing
the necessary means with which to study and recover
Valencia's archaeological heritage. Thanks to a
donation from Fernando Ponsell Cortés granting the
Valencia Provincial CounciJ the collection of archaeological materials which he had collected at
excavations of the Iberian settlements of Xarpolar de
Margarida and above all the Bronze Age village of
Mas de Menente in Alcoi, l. Ballester was able to give
shape to the Prehistory Research Service, with its
excavation departrnent, laboratory and specialized
library, and museum and publications sections.
The S.I.P. and its Prehistory Museum were installed on rather small premises at the Palau del
Temple, the seat of the Council at that time, although
13
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PREHlSTORY MUSEUM
Pre history Museum exhibition room i\t the l'alau de la Gem~ralitat. 1946. (Photo: Sanchis)
by the end of 1927 they were moved to the Golden
Rooms of the Palau de la Genera lita t. From the outset,
the institution boasted a list of important na mes: Lluis
Pericot García, who had recently become head
p rofessor at the University of Valencia and was
appointed assistant manager of the institution, F.
Ponsell, Mariano Jornet Perales and Gonzalo Viñes
Masip, in addition to Salvador Espí Martí, who
became chief reconstructor for over three decades.
Excavations began .immediately at sites as sign.ificant
as the Cova Negra in Xativa, the basis for current
understanding of Valencia's Middle Palaeolithic, the
Tberian settlement of La Bastida de les Alcuses in
Moixent, where a magnificent collection of Tberian
Culture objects was initiated, and in 1929, the Parpalló
Cave in Gandia, whose importance for Upper
Palaeolithic stud.ies, and portable art in particular, was
to acqu ire immediate acclaim. By 1931, these sites had
been complemented by the Petxina Cave in Bellús and
the Sarsa cave in Boca.irent, restoration work at the
Muntanyeta de Cabrera hill site, a commission for lifesize replicas of rack shelter paintings from the Araña
14
caves in Bicorp, among others. lt was also at that time
when new collaborators were incorporated, such as
Emilio Gómez Nadal, Domingo Fletcher Valls, Ernesto
Jiménez Navarro, Julián San Valero Aparisi and
Manuel Vidal López; followed sorne years later by
Francisco Jordá Cerdá, José Chocomeli Galán, José
Alcácer Grau and Enrique Pla Ballester.
Purcl1ases during the initial years were to increase
the museum's holdings significantly: a collection
belonging to Federico Motos, an excavator at diverse
sites in Almería, Granada and Murcia, specializing in
the El Argar Culture; materials gathered by Manuel
Cazurro Ruiz, including an extensive group of vases
and misceUaneous Greek and Roman objects from
Empúries, and bronze wares from the Huertas de
Arriba mortuary chamber near Burgos, which consisted of shaving implements, bracelets and other
objects belonging to so-ca !Jed Atlantic Bronzes; and
finally the collection of Arturo Pérez Cabrero, comprising Punic implements and some Roman and
Medieval wares, mostly from Puig des Molins,
showing some terracotta from Es Cuieram.
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THE S.f.P ANO lTS PREHlSTORY MUSEUM
Prehistory Museum ex hibition room at the Palau de la Batlia. 1960s.
As a result of the explorations undertaken by collaborators, we can see how a series of site names wlúch
would later be acquiring fame began to appear in archaeological references as of 1932, such as the lberian
settlements of Cova Foradada, and Monravana in
Lliria, Torre Seca in Casinos, or the prehistoric sites of
the Cova de l'Or in Beniarrés, the Turche rock shelter,
and Venta Mina cave in Buñol, among otl1ers. Of major
importance was El Tossal de Sant Miquel in Uíria,
where excavati011 work was begun in 1933. The rooms
and halls of the Museum were established in 1936 at
the Palau de la Generalitat, continuing until1950 wiili
only minor modifications owing mostly to the incorporation of new materials in the exhibition haUs.
In February 1937, the Valencia Provincial Council,
known at the time as the Conse/1, founded the Institut
d'Estudis Valencians, incorporating the Prehistory
Research Service and its Prehistory Museum under a
History and Archaeological Department headed by L
Ballester, of whid1 D. Fletcher was secretary, although
because he had been given a leave of absence it was
Felipe Mateu i Llopis who acted as stand-in secretary.
A magazine was published in Valencian called Serie de
Trebn/ls So/ts and the first four issues were
incorporated with the existing Archives of Levnnfine
Prehistory and the institute's annual report. Museum
holdings were increased with two important collections: a terracotta figure collection from Ibiza gathered
together by the Valencian scholar Francisco Martínez y
Martínez, and a collection built up by Ernesto Botella
Candela at excavations of the Valencian Bronze Age
settlement of Mola Alta de Serelles in Alcoi. The
prolonged stay in Valencia of the delegation of the
National Natural Science Museum enabled palaeontological materials from the Cova Negra and the
Parpalló cave to be deaned and dassified.
As of 1941, the S.I.P. slowly recommenced its prospection and excavation tasks following the Spanish
Civil War. The El Tossal de Sant Miguel site in Llíria
continued to receive special attention, and new excavations were undertaken at the Cocina cave in Dos
Aguas, the Aeneolithic multiple burial chamber at the
Pastora cave in Alcoi, the settlement and cave at Mal
Paso in Castellnovo, Ereta del Pedregal in Navarrés,
15
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PREHISTORY MUSEUM
Prehistory Museum exhibition room at the Pala u de la Ballia. 1970s.
the Mallaetes cave in Barx, the Llatas cave in Andilla,
the Peña de la Dueña in Teresa, and the Atalayuela in
Losa del Obispo, among others. At the end of the
decade, the Service and its Prehistory Museum had
been consolidated, and there was a great deal of
documentation on Valencia's archaeological heritage,
a specialized library and a series of in-house publications. The institute had become part of the Hlgher
Council for Scientific Research in 1945 as the Valencia
Prehistory Section and later became part of the
Alfonso el Magnánimo Institution.
In 1950 D. Fletcher became head of the S.I.P. management team, with E. Pla as assistant manager. Both
men had collaborated for many years with I. Ballester.
At this time the decision of the provincial authorities
to install their offices in the Palau de la Generalitat
brought about a split-up of the premises of the
Prehistory Museum, and this precarious situation
continued until 1955, when a considerable portion of
the Palau de la Batlia was given over to the museum.
Installation continued until 1958, and the exhibition
rooms opened at that time were kept more or less as
16
they were for the next twenty-five years. Under the
directorship of D. Fletcher, the Prehistory Museum
enjoyed its most fruitful period.
During this period, ordinary recovery operations
and excavation campaigns were punctuated by works
at both old and new sites. Among the former were El
Tossal de Sant Miquel, the Cova Negra in Xativa or the
Parpalló cave; among the latter were the Iberian
settlements of Villares in Caudete de las Fuentes and
Monravana in Lliria, the Late Roman settlement at
Punta de l'Illa in Cullera and the Cova de l'Or in
Beniarrés, an exceedingly fruitful Neolithic site. The
Museum incorporated much of the material pertaining
to these new campaigns in its exhibition halls, as well
as a few donations such as those made by M. Jornet
and Juan Pablo Pérez Caballero. In 1960 Rubén
Antorúo Vela donated an extensive collection of South
American archaeological findings to the Museum,
particularly from the Tiahuanaco Solivian culture. In
1963, room was made for a fine bronze statue found on
Pinedo beach near Valencia, possibly a representation
of Apollo.
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THE S.I.P ANO lTS PREHlSTORY MUSEUM
Prehistory Museurn exhibition room at the Casa de Beneficencia. 1987.
At thls time, a large group of collaborators worked
with the S.I.P., spread throughout the Valencian region:
Gandia, Villar del Arzobispo, Cullera, Oliva, Requena,
Borriana, Benicarló, Castelló de Rugat, etc. Continua!
actions were undertaken to defend and recover the
region's archaeological heritage in the face of destruction and losses caused by earth movers and builders.
These activities were consolidated in the sixties with
the help and collaboration of many new researchers,
usually connected with university deparbnents, converting the S.I.P. into an essential institution linked to
the future of Valencian archaeology.
Sorne years later, in 1982, a new period began in the
long hlst01y of the S.l.P. The headquarters of the Valencia Provincial Council moved from the Palau de la
Generalitat to the Palau de la Batla, which had serious
consequences for the Museum. lt was forced to make a
new move, this time to the building of the former
House of Charity (Casa de la Beneficencia), now tmder
the direction of E. Pla. The consequences for the da y-today life of the institution were important, but activities
by no means carne to a halt: a new library was opened,
field work continued, as did storeroom labour for
archaeological materials, documentation tasks and
studies. One year la ter, in 1983, the Museum re-opened
to the public at the Casa de la Beneficencia, with a
monographlc exlubition dedicated to Iberian Culture.
In 1984 an exhibition of Hunter Societies in Valencian
Prehistory was inaugurated, forming the basis for the
Palaeolitluc, Palaeolitluc Art and Epipalaeolitluc rooms.
In 1987 the main exhlbits for the Neolithic room were
brought together, with B. Martí now director of the S.I.P.
The decision of the Valencia Provincia] Council in
1993 to completely restore the Casa de la Beneficencia
so as to make it more suitable for museum use brings us
down to the present day. The S.l.P. and its Prehistory
Museum closed their doors for a short period and then
re-opened to the public in 1995 in the present framework of the La Beneficencia Cultural Centre, with the
aim of preserving what has been its main object and
underlying spirit for so many years: serving as a forum
for botl1 the local population and visitors to thls region
so as to provide a picture of the land's most remote
Iustory, the story of Va1encia's archaeological heritage.
17
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PREHISTORY MUSEUM
THE EXHIBITION ROOMS
The exhibition rooms of the Prehistory Museum occupy the first and second floors of
the right wing of the La Beneficencia Cultural Centre. Exhibited here are sorne of the
most outstanding testimonies of human societies having settled in this region- from the
earliest vestiges of man's presence, until the days of the late Roman empire, plus a small
coin collection from later ages. These material remains, considered to be of great
relevance, are presented chronologically and within each of the periods established by
current standards of historical research. Occasionally, they have also been arranged in
accordance with the archaeological site where they were found, as many of these sites
ha ve been given individual treatment in view of the special information they have been
capable of providing.
18
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THE EXHIBITION ROOMS
FIRSTFLOOR
ROOM 1: VALENCIAN
ARCHAEOLOCY
ROOM 11: THE LOWER ANO MrDDLE PALAEOLITHIC
ROOM Ul: TI rE U PPER P ALAEOLITHIC
ROOM IV:
PALAEOLITHIC ART
ROOM V: TH E MEsoLITHIC
ROOM VI: THE
N EOLITJ-UC
ROOM V Il: P OST-PALAEOLITH IC ART
ROOM
VUI: TH E A ENEOLITHIC
ROOM IX:
TH E BRONZE AGE
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[page-n-21]
S.l.P. excavations
in the Parpalló cave (Gandia),
around 1930.
Room 1 provides n view of Vnleucinu nrc/meo/ogy througlt
loen/ refereuce works: /he reporls of /he Vnleucin Arc/meolog¡¡ Society
publislted iu 1871, nud oue of tite mmwscripts wrilfeu by junu Vilnuovn y Piem (b. 1821 iu
Vnleucin, d. 1893 iu Mndrid), wlto populnrized preltisfory stltdies iu Spnitt i11 lhe 19th ceulury.
Mnjol' nrcltneologicnl sil es kuowu ni preseul nre iudicnted 011 nu iuternctive mnp of lite regiou of
Vnleucin. A schemntic model of nu nrcltneologicnl excnvnliou site sltows lite bnsics of the
nrclmeologicnlmelhod, evideuciug some of lite difficullies of preserviug our somelimes very fmgile
cullurñl lteritnge.
l. VALENCIAN ARCHAEOLOGY
Valencian archaeological research has a long
tradition. As of the Renaissance, studies on tbe ancient
world began to inspire tbe founding of Antiquities
Departments, bringing about the birth of Archaeology
as a scientific metbod of recovering cultural material
from societies predating the present. In Valencia,
interest in works of art and monuments from the past
began to appear in the days of the Enlightenment, in
the 18th century. Well-known sites today, such as Alcúdia in Elx, TossaJ de Manises in Alicante, Banyets de
la Reina in Calp, El Puig or Sagunt, became related to
relevant personalities of the age such as F. Pérez Bayer,
J.A. Mayans, A. de Valcárcel orA.J. Cavanilles. We also
ha ve reports that in the last third of the 18th century a
collection of antiquities of sorne importance was
brought together at the archbishop's palace in Valencia. In 1792, E. Palos y Navarro dedicated a room in the
town hall of Sagunt to Iberian and Roman inscriptions.
AJmost half a century later, as a consequence of the
saJe of church property initiated by the Spanish government in 1835, Valencia founded an antiques
museum in the Convento del Carmen under the directora te of the San Carlos Academy with the airo of ensuring the preservation of quite a number of artistic
objects. One last reference is the year 1871, when the
Valencia Archaeological Society was created, among
whose founding members were outstanding researchers such as R. Chabás, subsequent founder and
director of the magazine El Archivo, and S. Moreno, A.
!barra andA. Chabret.
It was around this time, well into the second half of
the 19th century, when archaeological activities widened their scope to include Prehistory, whose birtb as
a new science had much to do with the development
of Geology and the acceptance of the theory of the
evolution of the species, fostering tbe acknowledge-
21
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PREHISTORY MUSEUM
ment of man's remote origins. Worthy of mention as a
popularizer of Prehistory studies in Spain was J.
Vilanova y Piera, who brought his influence to bear in
the excavation of the Llometes cave in Alcoi by E.
Vilaplana in 1884, in addition to carrying out other
activities and editing publications. Not long afterwards, at the start of the 20th century, archaeological
activities began to multiply in the Valencian region: J.
Furgús explored sites in Orihuela, M. Rico supervised
digs into the subsoil of Alicante with meticulous care,
l. Ballester began excavating Covalta in Albaida
around 1910, H. Fornés excavated the Rotxina settlement in Sot de Ferrer in 1913 and 1914, C. Visedo
discovered La Serreta in Alcoi in 1917, J. Belda started
explorations of the Torre de les Ma<;anes, etc.
Thus, quite a few years of research and discovery,
plus the unearthing of outstanding discoveries in the
first decades of the 20th century, called for the creation
of a Valencian archaeological museum that would help
to preserve these treasures and prevent their dispersion or even their export from this region. Immediately preceding this endeavour, in the 1920s, an Archaeology Laboratory was created at the University of
Valencia, and the Valencian Cultural Centre was
founded. Although these did not contribute to the appearance of institutions with a capacity for undertaking archaeological excavations, they did play an
important role in the development of archaeological
studies and the systematic prospection of certain
districts. The next step forward would be the creation
of the S.I.P. and, a little la ter, the Archaeology Museum
in Alicante in 1931.
Archaeological patrimony is a fundamental part of
our cultural heritage, ie, the sum total of manifestations reflecting the collective personality of a given
society and its past development. Archaeological sites
are part of this heritage. They are highly important
legacies that enable us to expand our knowledge of
societies which have left no written documents.
Our archaeological heritage in Valencia is an inalienable asset, an asset which should be preserved
22
and protected in all manner of ways, from both expoliation and indiscriminate manipulation. Large-scale
public works-part and parcel of urban development-and important transformations of agricultura!
lands should be compatible with respect for cultural
vestiges from the past. Our archaeological heritage
should never be considered as an obstade to economic
development today. Public institutions such as the
regional government, Ln Genernlitnt, town councils,
universities and museums are called upon to foster the
study of this heritage, its preservation and diffusion,
ensuring that future generations will also have the
opportunity to see what we have preserved from the
past so that it can be enjoyed both today and
tomorrow.
Archaeological excavation is the method used by
Archaeology, the science that attempts to reconstruct
the history of human society by usíng material
remains from the past. Excavation techniques vary
depending on the nature of the site and the medium in
which vestiges are found. Excavations cannot be the
same, for instance, in a cave, on an open hill site, in the
urban environment, or at an underwater site. Nevertheless, there are certain basic principies which always
remain the same. All archaeological interventions start
with the determinatíon of the area to be üwestigated
and the precise delimitation and identification of the
zones, sectors or grids to be excavated. Thereafter, the
sediments or deposits covering or surrounding the
remains are extracted followíng artificial or natural
layers. lt is essential to adopt a precise measuring and
reference systen1 which can Jater be applied to the
positions of the finds, permitting their exact localizatíon and enabling the extractíon process to be reconstructed. Each site is a unique and unreplaceable
document wlúch unfortunately has to be partially
destroyed in order to be interpreted. Tlús is why it is
so important that archaeological investigation should
be undertaken only by a sufficiently large .interdisciplinary team permitting all informatíon to be
recovered and preserved for the future.
[page-n-23]
S.I.P. excavations
at La Bastida de les Alcuses (Moixent), around 1929.
S.l.P. excavations
at El Tossal de Sant Miquel (Liíria), around 1936.
23
[page-n-24]
[page-n-25]
Silex tools from the Cova Negra (Xativa).
Moustcrian spearpoint, denticulate,
scraper and Oake. Middle Palaeolithic:
between 120,000 and 35,000 years BP (before
the present). Length of largest piece 6.9cm.
Room U conlnins exnmples of lile firsl lestimo11ies of mn11's
prese11ce 011 Enrlll. Evolutionnry developmenl is illustrnted using replicns
of fossilized llomi11id crnniums fowrd in Afrien nnd Europe. Tllese cnrr be compnred witlra Homo
sapiens sapiens crnrrium formd irr tire Pnrpnlló cnve irr Gnrrdin, dntirrg fromtlle begimring of tire
Upper Pnlneolitllic. Tire oldesl lrnces of 1/re preserrce of mnrr ;, tire Vnlencinn regionnre n series
of stone implemenls nnd nnimnl remnins from tire lotoer levels of 1/re Bolomor cnve in Tavemes de
Vnlldignn, dnled ni over 350,000 yenrs befare lile preserrl. Arlifncts nrrd arrima/ remnins froml/re
Middle Pnlneolilllic llave been rmenrllred in tire Cooo Negrn irr Xlllioo, lile Pet:rimr cave in Bellrís
nrrd lile Snlt cnve in Alcoi, tfnlirrg from 120,000 lo 35,000 yenrs before lile preserrl. Of pnrlicrrlnr
rrote are tlle Nenrrtfertllnl remai11s tliscoveretf irr lile Covn Negmnrrd lile Bolomor cnve.
II. THE LOWER ANO MIDDLE PALAEOLITHIC:
THE FIRST INHABITANTS
The first stages in the process of man's development
go back over 4 million years before the present. According to present-day knowledge, the stages corresponding to various types of Australopithecus man and Hamo
lmbilis were limited to African regions alone. But approxin1ately one rnillion years ago Homo erectus embarked upon the first expansion of mankind into Asia
and Europe, bringing about the development of various
evolutionary processes of a regional n~ture. This is why
it is difficult toda y to consider Homa erectus as a definite
type of man with universal characteristics. Instead, current scientific knowledge accepts t~e theory of a complex and heterogeneous evolutionáry process in which
certain African types, formerly classified as ~rchaic
Hamo snpiens, played a central role in the process of the
appearance of modern man in the anatomical sense.
In Europe and the Near East, regional evolutionary
patterns resulted in Homo erectus populations develop-
ing into Neanderthals, characterized by their high
cranial capacity and their strong facial features. The
evaluation of their role in the process of the appearance
of modern man in Europe is controversia!. Sorne
scientists think their influence was decisive, others
maintain that their inability to mate with new hwnan
forms led to their extinction.
The Quaternary is the geological period in which
man arase and developed. It is divided into the Pleistocene and the Holocene (or Recent) epochs or series.
Despite the brevity of this period in geological terms,
clima tic phenomena producing the successive advance
and retreat of the polar icecaps and the rise and fall in
the level of the seas, bringing about changes in hwnid
and arid zones, had great consequences for the
development of man, both in respect of continental
colonization and man's adaptation to varying surroundings.
25
[page-n-26]
PREHISTORY MUSEUM
The Bolomor Cave (Tavemes de Valldigna, La Safor
district) is a key site for the study of the Lower Palaeolithic .in the region. It overlooks a Iarge expanse of the
tectonic depression of La Valldigna and has sedimentary deposits over 7 metres in depth. It is therefore a
prime source of information on the palaeo-environment
and the cultural manifestations of the Middle Pleistocene, thanks to an abundance of remains of large and
small mammals, and rock collections (flake tools) of preMousterian and Lower Mousterian manufacture. In
addition, the sequence of Iayers and their anthropic
contents have been subjected to thermoluminescence
dating. The oldest traces of inhabitation by man reach
back to the Middle Pleistocene, perhaps at the time of
the advance of the MiJ1del glaciation, over 350,000 years
ago. The species of mankmd existing at that time was
Romo erectus, responsible for the majority of cultural
manifestations in the Lower Palaeolithic. Valencian
sites, however, have not yet provided fossil evidence of
this precursor of modern man.
During the stages in which the Neanderthal culture
was widespread, the Middle Palaeolithic, from 200,000
to 35,000 years befare the present, fu1dings of human
fossils increase considerably. The rise of funeral rites
explaiJ1s this ü1crease in documentation, amounting to
sorne two hundred individuals fow1d throughout
Europe and the Near East. In the Valencian region, three
sites have offered up bone remaiJ1s corresponding to
diverse anatomical parts of inctividuals of different
ages. In Xativa's Cava Negra, remains of at least five
individuals have been found, including both adults and
children. The Bolomor cave has provided us with a
child's molar. The Tossal de la Font site m Vilafamés
provided a coxa and a humeros. All these are from
Neanderthals, as evidenced by their chronological positions and their morphologica1 cl1aracteristics, thereby
confirming the importance of this group of humans
along Spa.in's Mediterranean region.
The Cova Negra (Xativa, La Costera district), an impressive cavity overlooking the Albaida river, was one
of the first archaeological sites to be researched iJ1 the
region of Valencia. It was mentioned as far back as 1872
by J. ViJanova y Piera, and the continued attention it has
received js fully justified by the rich potential of its
sedimentary deposits, the wide time span it covers, the
excellent preservation of the bone remaü1s it contains
26
and the exceptional importance of the humru1 remams
discovered there to date. The Cova Negra has enabled
present-day researchers to determü1e the kind of fatma
having existed m this region during the first stages of
the Würm glaciation, the most recent Ice Age; both large
herbivorous and carnivorous animals, and others of a
smaller size--birds, bats, rodents. Thus, two signi.ficant
associations can be described between anima.ls on the
one hru1d and temperature ru1d humidity changes on
the other, with reference to Würm 1 and Würm II. The
first period shows remains of species pertaining to a
relatively humid, arboreal environment, such as the
ancient elephant (Pnleoloxodon nntiquus), Merck's rhü1oceros (Dicerorl!imts kirchbergensis), the fallow deer (Dnmn
sp.), an equü1e (Equ11s cnbnllus), a macaque (Mncncn
sylvnnn), the hyena (Crocttfn crocutn) and a feline resembllilg the tiger (Pnnthern spelnen). The second period
provides us with remams of species which were better
adapted to life on the steppes, such as the steppe rlunoceros (Dicerorhinus hemitoechus), the deer (Cervus elnplws), the wild goat (Cnprn pyrennicn), the tahr (Hemifmgus sp.), a leopard (Pnnthem pnrdus), the wolf (Cnnis
lupus) and the dhole (Cuan nlpinus).
The sílex flakes found at excavation sites are practically the only evidence of commonplace tools having
reached us from the Lower and Middle PaJaeolithic. In
all proba.bilitJ¡ these flakes were fixed to wooden handles usiJ1g resm, then bound with vegetable fibre, alÚmal tendons or strips of leather, as replicated even m
our da y m the technologies of existing hunting societies.
These sílex flakes were used to perform various domestic and subsistence tasks, as can be confirmed today by
a microscopic analysis of their signs of usage and wear.
During the Middle Palaeolithic stone industries
throughout Europe concentrate less attention on the
production of core tools and show a clear preference for
usi.ng flakes which have been retouched or having undergone a secondary working. Various methods were
used to rework these fla.kes, and the choice seems to
have been related to the characteristics ru1d abundance
of the existing raw material around a given site. Middle
Palaeolithic industries cover a time-span clase to two
hundred thousand years, during which time no significant d1anges were shown m the type of manufacture
and the shape of the instru.ments employed. This lack of
evolution, the technical and morphological uniformity
[page-n-27]
Silex, quartz and limesto ne tools
from the Cova de Bolomor (Tavemes
de 1;~ Vi!lldigna). Corc, scrapers, notched
pieces and denticulates. Lower PaJaeolit hic:
over 250,000 years old. Length of largest
piece 6.3cm.
Fossilized parietal bone of a Homo snpiens uenmferlltnleusis fow1d at Cov;~ Negra. Outer and inner surface. MiddJe Palaeolithic: from 120,000 to
35,000 Br. Length 12.0cm. (Pho to: Liébana).
27
[page-n-28]
observed in the materials recovered from widespread
geograplúcal zones, and the lack of variety in tool types
produced aH seem to inclicate that stone tools must have
played a lirnited role as a means for man's adaptation to
the environment. Oespite tlús, the variety of the procedures used shows a certain amotmt of technological
advancement anda capacity for adaptation to the nature
of the raw materiaJs available, and probably, to the conditioning factors derived from the provisional nature of
the habitat and the type of food sources available.
Based on these and otl1er data we can deduce that European Neanderthal populations were characterized by
ilieir rughly adaptable economies, capable of integrating
food sources derived from hunting and scavenging, and
also by their lúgh mobility. Tlús capacity to move from
place to place seems to have offset technological deficiencies and the lack of plaru1il1g for obtaining resources.
28
At the Cova Negra, the taphonomic study of the
bones-tl1eir marks, fue variations shown in different
skeletal remains having been documented, fueir clispersion, etc.-enables us to conjecture that both
Neanderthal inhabitants and carnivores often carried
the remains of herbivores to the cave. Arnong fue carnivores, the hyena was the most active during Würm I,
whereas the dhole and wolf were more important
during Würm ll and the begiruúng of III, concentrating
on the capture of meclium-sized mammals such as the
tahr and wild goat. On the other hand, the rernains of
small prey, such as rabbits, were mostly contributed by
birds of prey using fue walls of the cave as perches and
regurgitating onto fue cave floor. Signs of habitation by
man, alternating wifu fue carnivores, show that deer,
goats and equines were captured and taken to the cave
as food for NeanderthaJ man.
[page-n-29]
Remains of Pleistocene animals from the Cova
Negra. Left to righ t: Molars of Merck's rhinoceros
(Dicerorlliuus kircl1bergeusis), metacarpal and
phalangeal bones of a steppe rhinoceros
(Dicerorhiuus llemitoeclms), tusk and molar of an
ancient elephant (Pnlneoloxodou nutiquus). Middle
Palaeolithic: from 120,000 to 35,000 years BP.
Length of tusk: 27.0cm.
Bifacially Oaked siliceous limestone tools from
Cova Negra. Middle Palaeolithic:
from 120,000 to 35,000 years BP.
Length of largest piece 12.5cm.
Silex, quartzite and siliceous limestone tools
from Cova Negra. J>ara·01arentian-industry
denticulates and scrapers.
Middle Palaeolithic: from 120,000 to 35,000
years or. Length of largest piece 8.5cm.
29
[page-n-30]
Silex points from Cova Negra. Soyons
point and Mousterian poinl. Middle
Palaeolithic: from 120,000 to 35,000 years
01'. Lengths 4.8 and 5.3cm.
30
[page-n-31]
Silex tools from Cova Negra. Scrapers
and piece with Clactonian no tch
from a Quina-type industry.
Middle Palaeolithic: from 120,000 to 35,000
years BP. Length of largest piece 7.0cm.
Rema ins of Pleistocene animals
from Cova Negra. Metapodia l
and pllalangeal bones of
various feHnes. Right to left: ·
lynx (Felis 1/yux} pnrrliua),
leopard (Pauf/rem pnrrlus) and
cavern Hon. Midd le
Palaeolithic: from 120,000 to
35,000 years BP. Length of
largest bone 13.5cm.
[page-n-32]
[page-n-33]
Doubled-pointed and single-pointed antier
javelin tips from Cova de les Mallaetes
(Barx). Aurignacian bone industry:
from 35,000 to 25,000 years BP.
Lengths 22.0 and 13.0cm.
Room ill is dedicated to the master hunters of
the Upper Palaeolithic. Materials discovered in the Parpal/6
cave in Gandia, the Mallaetes cave in Barx, Cendres cave in M01·airn, Volcán
cave in Faro de Cullern, Ratlla del Buba cave in Crevillent and tlze Senda
Vedada rack slzelter in Sumacilrcer all correspond to the appearnnce of modern
man. Stone and bone implements evolved, man's activities widened and his
hunting methods became more perfected. New pattems of territorial
occupntion can be seen, and there is also evidence of climatic changes and
variations in the coastline occurring during the Upper Pala ea/ithic, belween
35,000 and 10,000 yenrs befare the present.
III. THE UPPER PALAEOLITHIC:
THE MASTER HUNTERS
The Upper Palaeolithic is the age when modern
man makes his appeaxance. This is the most complex
and documented stage of man's prehistoric development, the age of skilled hunters and food gatherers. The
process began sorne 35,000 years ago, starting with
Würm m, and continued for 25,000 years dming which
a variety of cultW'es spread across Emope, constituting
a magnificent example of the degree of social and cultural complexity that can be achieved by groups which
are perfectly adapted to the resources offered by their
environment, going far beyond mere subsistence levels.
A great many advances were made dW'ing the Upper Palaeolithic with respect to the Middle Palaeolithic.
Hwlting became much more efficient, thanks to the
refinement of hunting techniques and the use of blades
which could be thrown; raw materials were used more
efficiently, implying a gradual decrease of dependency
on localized sources of supply; more speciaJized tools
were incorporated and greater diversity was shown in
toolmaking. New concepts in stone working brought
about by the development of the blade-making industry
(blades which were longer rather than wider) enabling
the cutting edge of the material to be increased considerably with respect to its weight in silex. In addition to
the use of wood as in former times, bone and antler
were brought into play. Complex funeral rites became
widespread, and greater attention was paid to structuring dwellings, and both wall painting and portable
art were introduced.
In the region of Valencia, the first Upper Palaeolitluc
industries correspond to the late Aurignacian periodthe typical Aurignacian period in whlch javelins witl1
bone blades were used, as we can see in the Mallaetes
cave in Barx- , meaning that Hamo sapiens sapiens was
present here, although the extent of his occupation of
local territories was still limited to only a few settle-
33
[page-n-34]
PREHJSTORY MUSEUM
ments. Slowly but surely, however, during the Gravettian period, sorne 25,000 years before the present, the
number of sites began to increase, showing characteristic Gravette points, pieces with abrupt retouching,
and scrapers, all of which presented a series of specifically Mediterranean characteristics showing great
originality and dynamics.
Around 21,000 years ago, in the last stages of Würm
ill and during the Würm Jll-IV interstadial, Western
Ew·ope, and particularly the lberian península and
France, was the site of the Solutrean culture, which
marked the true turning point in Palaeolithic times. The
Solutrean signified a notable change in the composition and type of stone implements, something which
is shown in the use of flat retoudllilg techniques that
gave rise toa type of point with no known antecedents.
It was a teclmical procedme for the improvement of
stone materials intended to make points for darts or
speaTs, as the flat retouching work propitiated the
obtention of good-sized points with straight-edged
longitudinal sections. Each phase of the Solutrean
produced its own specific type of point, g:iving rise to
the so-called lberian facets found at Valencian sites.
Perhaps the points that best represent the unigueness of
these facets are those showing a peduncle ru1d wings
from the Upper Solutrean, documented in great
number and variety of forms in the Parpalló cave of
Gandia. Appeari.ng together with these are eared
poi.nts, which were more original than their successors
in the local Solutrean.
Finally, more thru1 in any other stage of the Palaeolithic, it is in the Magdalenian, starting about 16,000
years before the present and developing over approxi.mately six millennia tmtil the end of the last gladation,
that a veritable treasure-horde of objects and utensils in
bone and antier were produced. The shapes of these
objects do not present much doubt concenllilg the uses
to which they were put, and we cru1 therefore find
points for javelins, pins, sewing needles, spatulas, retouchers, pestles, etc., or necklaces, whistles, rattles,
harpoons, slings, hooks, etc. When the shapes of objects
do not clearly indicate their use, we can think of them
as simple adornments, or too! handles or perforated
sticks, or as ritual objects and others whicl1 are exclusively artistic, sucl1 as rods and plaques.
34
The Mallaetes cave (Barx, La Safor district) is
located in one of the northenunost peaks of the Mondúver massif. It has a stratigraphic seguence that covers
a good part of the Upper Palaeolithic and also includes
the initial phases of the Mesolithic, supplementing at
certain points in time the finds from the neighbouring
Parpalló cave, owing especially to its Amignacian levels
showing the first manifestations of modern man. Another interesting feature of this site is that it helps to
reconstruct the palaeoenvirorunent at the e.nd of the
Würm glaciation, complementing studies mtdertaken
using the methods of sedimentology and palynology.
Thus, the Mallaetes cave, Cova Negra ru1d the Bolomor
cave cover practically 300,000 years of climatic and cultural events having occurred in the prehistory of the
reg:ion of Valencia.
The Parpalló cave (Gandia, La Safor district),
located Ü1 the rocky southe.m side of the Mondúver
massif, owes its discovery as a prehistoric site to J. Vilanova y Piera in 1866. Major excavations of the site were
undertaken in 1929 and 1931 under the supervision of
U. Pericot. The results were published in 1942, in a now
classic work that permitted Valencian Upper Palaeolith.ic sequences and characteristics to be established for
the first time, while proving their similarity with other
European Palaeolitlúc si tes. Tlús was possible thanks to
excellent stratigraplúc deposits measuring over 8
metres in depth and to the wealth of materials unearthed here, including important stone and bone unplements, adornments, and human and a11in1al remains,
plus other testimonies of occupation of the cave by
human populations down through the ages. But above
all, the Parpalló cave becarne farnous for its 5,000
engraved and pai.nted limestone plaques which were
fotmd on alllevels of the si te, offeru1g a broad overview
of artistic sequences in Upper Palaeolithic art.
Hunting societies were at the forefront of a contu1ual
search for improvements in weapons with the ailn of
aclúeving both greater precision in shooting anda more
lethal effect when weapons were launched, a11d also a
simpler process of manufacture and repair. Apart from
the new developments registered at the beginning of the
Upper Palaeolithic with the appearance of points which
were lighter than those of the Mousterian, possibly de-
[page-n-35]
Juvenile Homo snpieus snpíeus
cranium, probably female,
found in the Parpalló cave
(Gandin). Lower Solutrean level:
from 21,000 to 19,000 years BP.
(Photo: Liébana).
Silex tools from
Cova de les Mallaetes.
Gravctte points and Gravettian leafs
nnd backed points:
from 25,000 to 21,000 years 61'. Length
o ( largest piece 6.2cm.
35
[page-n-36]
PREHISTORY MUSEUM
signed for use with throwers, there were others revealing manufacturing techniques increasingly adapted to
more precise functions, in which greater efficacy was
progressively observed. Tlüs is the case of the first documented thrower hooks from the Solutrean, made from
antier for assembly on wooden handles; or the rods and
javelins with channels cut into them for the insertion of
microliths to create barbee! points; or harpoons and
fishhooks for the improvement of fishing techniques.
Compared to the unifonn nature of Mousterian instruments, Upper Palaeolitlúc stone and bone industries
present differences of a regional character indicating
that material culture played an important role in adaptation to local surroundings, as each type of resource
seems to have generated its own dass of implement and
each group adopted its own stylistic features, signifying
a deliberate search for identity. These changes affected
the habitat and the economy, and man developed new
ways to occupy territories and more sophisticated
systems of using natural resources.
With respect to the habitat, Ü\e idea that caves constituted tl1e only place of habita non of Palaeolithic man
is not entirely true, as although in glacial times roan did
take advantage of the shelter they offered as protection
against indemencies, it is also true that he frequently
built camps in the open air when tl1e drcumstances
Silex points from the
Parpalló cave. laurellea( style from the
Middle Solutrean:
from 19,000 to 17,000
years BP. Length of
largest piece 7.3cm.
36
arose. Cavities were never occupied directly; instead
they were used for mounting tents, windbreaks and palisades that would help to maintain habitable conditions.
lt can be stated generally that in areas occupied by Upper Palaeolithic hunters there were different functional
orientations for each particular site, with considerable
differences being observed between base camps, occupied during longer periods by a larger group of people,
and specialized camps used for hunting or food-gathering work, being occupied by a smaller number of persons. Evidencc of fires, remains of food and material
workmanship and other vcstiges of human activities all
enable us to deduce the structure and layout of these
carnps, with indications as to their function and their
seasonal occupation.
In the Parpalló cave and the Mallaetes cave, ie,
throughout thc majority of the Upper Palaeolithic, goats
a11d deer are the species providing most of the meat ea ten by hunting societies, with horses, aurochs and rabbits providing additional though less copious provender. Economies at the end of the Upper Palaeolithic
show a greater amount of specialization. Sites from this
period such as the Cendres cave (Teulada-Moraira, La
Marina Baixa district) provide animal references dominated by only one species of hoofed animal: either the
deer or the goat. Complementing this species are the
[page-n-37]
Silex points from the Parpalló
cave. Peduncle and winged
points from the late Solutrean:
between 17,000 and 16,000
years BP. Length of largest piece
5.3cm.
remains of rabbits, abundant in number but of course
providing less food than hoofed animals. These food resource patterns correspond toa certain type of territorial occupation in which Magdalenian peoples inhabited
different zones in accordance with the seasonal ha bits of
certain animals. Deer and goats are species covering
short migrational areas, they are territorial and have
mating and reproductive patterns which are fairly foreseeable. Hunting for young animals at times when they
will provide the maximum amount of food and the altemate use of coastal flatlands and the mountainous
areas ensured that both deer and goats could be used for
food without endangering their reproductive cycles.
The rabbit, on the other hand, a gregarious animal characterized by a high reproduction rate but limited to a
narrower territory, was a complementary food resource
for times of greater nutritionaJ stress.
With the appearance of modern man carne the first
objects used for adornment. Burials and remains recovered at sites inhabited by men from the Aurignacian
pay testimony to the fact that hunters from Europe's
Upper Palaeolithic wore a variety of pearls, shells and
perfo rated teeth on their clothing, and in addition possessed sma ll sculptures, which together with collars and
other types of pendants, contributed to their personal
ornamentation.
The amount of attention which must ha ve been paid
to these elements, theiJ· s tandardization and layout on
visible parts of the body seem to iJ1dicate a function
linked to commwúcation, capable of facilitating identification of the roles played by different individuals or
sexes and their group identity. A predilection for shells
or teeth of certain animals and of certain shapes, like the
representation of anirnaJs and signs of artwork, demonstratc the existence of symboüsm. Art and adonunent
ca rne about at practically the same time and corúinn
ea rly man's capacity for develo ping a system of
communication which, owing to its widespread geographical distribution, must have had an adaptive
character, linked to the maintenance of the necessary
social networks guaranteeing survival of PaJaeolithic
groups in a sparsely populated habita t.
37
[page-n-38]
Double points and
monobevetled javelins
with decorated bases, in
bone and antier, from the
Parpalló cave. SolutreanGrilvettian bone industry:
between17,000 and 16,000
ye~~rs nr. Length of largest
píece 1O.Scm.
t>
Sílex tools from the
Parpalló cave. Scrapers,
pieces wilh abrupt and
over-elevated retouching
and denticulate nakes
from the Lower
Magdale1úan: between
16,000 and 14,000 years BP.
Length of largest piece
3.7cm.
t>
Bone needles, decorated
antier and bone s hafts
from the Parpall6 cave.
Uppcr Magdalenian bone
industry: between 14,000
a nd 10,500 years m•.
Length of largest piece
7.9cm.
38
[page-n-39]
39
[page-n-40]
Silex tools from the Parpalló cave.
Scrapers, burins and backed Oakes
from the Upper Magdalenian: between
14,000 and 10,500 years Br>.
Length of largest piece 3.7cm.
1
Well-developed harpoons with rounded
barbs, double point and bevelled
javeli11s in antier and bone, from the
ParpaUó cave.
Upper Magdalenian bone indus try:
between 14,000 and 10,500 years bp.
Length of largest piece 9.1cm.
40
[page-n-41]
Oenticulate-edged sílex laurel leaf from the Volcán cave
in Faro (Cullera).
Upper Solutrean: between 17,000 and 16,000 years BP.
Length 5.5cm.
Perforated bone staff from the Volcéln cave in Faro (Cullera).
Magdalen ian bone industry: betwccn 15,000 and 10,000 years BP.
Leng th 24.0cm.
41
[page-n-42]
Silex and bone tools from
the Senda Vedada rock
shel te r (Sumadlrcer).
Scrapers, burins, backed
flakes and a javelin point
fragment from the
Magdalenian: between
15,000 and 10,500 years BP.
Length of javelin point:
6.9cm.
Perforated Pecteu jncobeus sheJis with
remains of ochre from the Parpalló cave,
possibly used as colour palettes.
Upper Palaeolithic: between
25,000 and 10,500 years nr.
Lengths 10.0, 10.5 and 10.7cm.
42
[page-n-43]
Personal adomments from the ParpaUó cave.
s
Dilierent types of sheU and teeth used as
pendants or to form a necklace.
Upper Palaeolithk: between 25,000 and 10,500
years ar. Length of largest piece 7.3cm.
43
[page-n-44]
[page-n-45]
Decorated limes tone plaque
from the Parpalló cave.
Tree-shape painted in red
and separa te, superimposed
straight lines.
Upper Magdalenian: between
14,000 a.n d 10,000 years er.
Size: 10.9 x 6.6cm.
Room N preseufs file birlh of nrf in lile Vnleucinu regiou,
offering n represeufnlive snmple of lile nrlislic discoveries fromthe Pnrpn/16
cave of Gmrdifl, wlrere sto11e plaques were eugmved nud pniuted /lrroughoullhe Upper Pfllneolithic.
These exlribils summflrize the euolufiou of teclmiques mrd the developmeut of both nuimnlmrd sigu
molifs, coveriug more flum 15,000 yenrs. The Pflrpn/16 cave is 1111 essenlinl refereuce poiuf for
Europenu prehisloric nrf.
IV. PALAEOLITHIC ART:
ANIMALS ANO SIGNS
Throughout the 25,000 years of the Upper Palaeolithic culture, European hunters and food gatherers produced diverse types of artistic manifestations. Of note
among these were the artistic creations drawn and
painted on cave walls and the faces of rock overhangs
and shelters, and also on portable flat slabs of stone, on
which animals are associated with signs in a strongly
symbolic display. This initial art created by man coincides with the appearance of modern roan, marking yet
another milestone in the evolutionary process of the
species.
Various continents ha ve provided evidence of palaeolithic art, although Europe, particularly its westernmost regions, has the largest concentration of prehistoric sites where artwork has been found. Technical,
stylistic and thematic characteristics enable us to define
an evolutionary cycle whose origins go back to the
Aurignacian and whose endpoint comes at the start of
the Holocene.
The Parpalló cave near Gandia, as we have mentioned before, covers the largest part of the U pper Palaeolithic, from the Gravettian to the Magdalenian. The
fifteen millennia to which its 5,612 stone plaques can be
dated provide a surnmary of the evolution of techniques
and themes, and because they refer to stratified and industrial sequences they enables us to serialize European
palaeolithic art and assign dates of manufacture which
are much more precise than stylistic methods.
The plaques are decorated using graffito or painting,
ora combination of these tecl1niques. Graffito was done
using silex instruments, apparently without a sketch
being performed before the actual drawing. Painting,
which is truly exceptional in portable Palaeolithic art,
offers examples of both plain colours and linear patterns, using natural mineral colorants such as hematites
and ochres.
In surnmary, two large temporal groups can be distinguished at the Parpalló cave: an ancient period,
45
[page-n-46]
PREHJSTORY MUSEUM
encompassing stages of the Soluh·ean, and another
more rece.nt period induding certain moments of the
Magdalenian. In the earliest times, graffito tecluüques
were simple lines, double lli1e.s and multiple lines, with
painting of great importance; animal figw-ation is somewhat out of proportion, perspectives are archaic, and
signs are very rudimentary. As of the Middle Solutrean
the first structured signs being to appear, with an abundance of rectangular and reticulated themes; at the same
time, we can see zoomorphic shapes in whicl1 disproportions are attenuated and for the first time there are
signs of attention to detail, such as mottled skin and
volumes in sorne scenes.
At the beginning of the Magdalenian, paints disappear ÍJ1 ru1imal drawings and engraving techniques
begin to d1ange, giving rise to simple but deep U11es ru1d
the practica! disappearance of aU other types of lines.
Animals are often represented using one single profile,
with only the front Leg being shown, and signs become
more complicated and are frequently combined on one
single plaque. At the end of the Magdalenian figures
acqu.ire a certain degree of perfection both in proportion
ru1d in perspective, with more attention being given to
anatomical details-mouths, lips, eyes-, signs show
more preference for geomeh·ics and there is a tendency
to make use of tl1e en tire plaque.
In gene1·al, Pal aeolitllic art offers an important lineup of animals, ru1 appreciable number of signs, with
only very rare attention being paid to the hum
appearances being put in by wild boars, foxes, lynxes, a
few canines of tmce.rtain ídentity, a partridge and a
member of the duck family. We should bear in mil1d
that the dish"ibution of certain species is subject to climatic imperatives, whkh therefore limits the themes
used in art in Spaill's Mediterranean region, where
there were no mammoths, rhinoceroses or bisons or
large cats. The signs show ru1 evolution featuring two
irnportrult moments: one characterized by the
predominance of rectangular themes, pertaining to the
Solutrean, and ru1othe.r, the Magdalenian, il1 which
mamtfacturil1g is complicated by the combiJ1ation of
ladder-like shapes, bands of lines cut in paraUel and
bands fonned by littJe crosses in parallel lines. As for the
46
htunan figure, tl1ere are only margil1al refe.rences in the
art found at the Parpalló cave and it is so simplified as
to lie on the limits of the identifiable.
Independently of the meaning the.se creations may
have had for their creators, Pa1aeolithic art can be valued il1 accordance witl1 its themes and the role it may
ha ve played dependil1g on hw1ting societies.In the present case, as stated abo ve, themes are reduced Íll essence
to anilnals and signs. The former coincide with the herbivores most frequently used as sources of food, yet the
way they are represented is not llilked to hunting
scenes, their surrotmdi11gs or theü· group behaviom~
and can be inte.rpreted as havil1g a symbolic value. The
signs, showing a repetition of themes, associated ideas
and positions within rock shelter animal groups, also
il1dicate the existence of definite mies of expression.
Conceming the role of such ru"t, tl1e chru1ges taking
place in Upper PaJaeolithic sodeties had theiJ· ilnpact on
the function of rut, as ru·twork prior to 18,000 years befare the present cru1 be differentiated from la ter work as
of the Upper Solutrean. In the first period there are few
stylistic or tl1ematic features when compared to other
regions of western Europe. The location of artistic fil1ds
te.nds to be li1 the higher parts of caves, perhaps functioning as a meru1s of communication betvveen highly
mobile groups at times of low population levels. The
representations, easily discernible and usil1g themes of a
wuve.rsal character, would tend to favour contact between groups with well-knit social networks.
During the end of the Solutrean and above all i.J1 the
Lower Magdalenian period, coinciding with times of
maximlml clli11atic rigour, Ew-opeaJ1 Palaeolithic art
shows a process of regionalization affectíng both the
themes of artwork, using signs which are specific to
eaeh separa te territory, and the style of the works, evincing a strong relation between representational modes
and territorial wuts. It is at this time that the strongest
trend can be observed towards locating waU paintings
in areas well removed from tl1e light and from what
look like living quarters. This seems to il1dicate that art
played a cohesive role within the group executing it,
combinmg the h·ansmission of infonnation with the establishment of group identity bonds, and coi.J1cidiJ1g
with the development of closed social networks composed of huntu1g groups movil1g over short-radius
territories.
[page-n-47]
Derorated limestone plaque
from the Parpalló cave. Doe
painted
in
black,
superimposed with two
inciscd
equine figures,
parti11lly re-using the original
represcntation.
Lower
Solutrcn n: between 21,000
nnd 19,000 ye<~rs m•.Size: 19.1
x 12.9cm.
Dccorillcd limestone plaque from
!he PMpll ll ó cave. Doe incised with
si mpl e lines. Midd le Solutrcan:
between 19,000 11nd 17,000 years Bl'.
Size: 10.5 x 6.5cm.
47
[page-n-48]
Decorated Jimes tone plaque from the rarpalló cave. Doe ou tline incised with simple Jines and filled in
w ith pClraUel lines. Outside the fig ure a re parallelli nes articulated with the infilllines. Upper St~lutrea n:
between 17,000 11 nd 16,000 years Br. Size: 10.5 x 12.2cm.
48
[page-n-49]
Decorated limestone plaque from the Parpa lló cave, showi ng a doe with two fawns und er her
legs, incised with multiple lines, and a superimposed, single-line equine figu re. SolutreanGravettian 1: between 17,000 and 16,000 years ur. Size: 8.8 x 4.2cm.
Decorated limesto11e plaque from
the Parpalló cave, showing a
caprine figure, repeated, a11d a 11011naluralistic infill forming a
gridwork; over the animal's
shoulder is a rectangular sign.
Upper Solutrea n: between 17,000
and 16,000 years or.
Size: 8.3 x 5.9cm.
49
[page-n-50]
Decorilted limestone plaque from the Parp.1lló
Cilvc, s howing an equine ñgure painted in red,
with lllilll\! partialJy scraped off and band of s hort
paintcd strokes. Solutrean·Gravettian lll: between
17,000 a nd 16,000 years bp. Size: 37.5 x 27.lcm.
so
[page-n-51]
Decorated limestone pl¡¡que from the PClrpalló
c¡¡ve, showing superimposed bovi nes incised
w ith compo und lines ¡¡nd an eqlúne e ng raved
with simple line. Lower Magda lenian: between
16,000 and 14,000 years bp. Size: 7.9 x 5.6cm.
51
[page-n-52]
[page-n-53]
<]
Limestone plaque decorated with
engraved geometric motifs
from the Cocina cave (Dos Aguas).
Geometric Epipalaeolithic:
approximately 7,000 years BP.
Length: 7.2cm.
Room V co11tnills i11dustrinl tmd nrtistic nrtifncts from !he
lnst remni11i11g lw11fillg societies /endi11g up lo /he Ho/oce11e or modem nge,
from 10,000 lo 7,000 yenrs before /he prese111. Tire mnlerinls slrow11 Itere were rmenrllred in /he
Mnllneles cnve i11 Bnrx, 1/re Untos cave i11 A11dilln, nud nbove n/1, /he Cociun cave iu Dos Aguas,
where n series of smn/1 plaques e11gmved willr geomelric molifs were discovered.
V. THE MESOLITHIC:
THE LAST HUNTERS
The end of the Palaeolithic, leading up to the
Recent of Holocene age, did not bring about the end of
hunting societies. From 10,000 to 7,000 years before the
present, up until the time of the first agricultura!
sodeties along the western Mediterranean, the way of
life continued to consist of traditíonal activities of
hunting and gathering. During this period temperatures increased abruptly, producing a thermal maximum about 7,000 years ago which was higher than
today, bringing about a rapid recession of the glaciers
and the spread of the forests, as well as a pronow1eed
rise in the sea leve!, producing the flooding of the
coastline.
This is the period that corresponds to the last of the
great hru1ters of the Stone Age, and we call it the
Mesolithic or the EpipaJaeolithic. The concept of the
Epipalaeolithic is used to express continuity with the
techniques and economy of the Palaeolithic, as is the
case in the Valendan region. The Mesolithic, on the
other hand, has a chronological meaning, referring to
the intennediate stage between the Palaeolithic and
the Neolithic, or New Stone Age, which also has an
economic meaning in that it can be applied to groups
of hm1ters who initiated the transition to food
production techniques in areas such as the Near East.
Testimonies of the last hm1ters in thi.s region can be
grouped into two cultural complexes, known as the
Microlaminar Epipalaeolithic and the Geometric
Epipalaeolithic. Material examp1es corresponding to
these two phases of development have been found in
the MaUaetes cave in Barx, and the Cocina cave in Dos
Aguas, respectively. Their names were derived from
the type of points used for making arrows and
javelins. Microlaminar points were almost exclusively
used for small sílex points made from shards that
53
[page-n-54]
PREHISTORY MUSEUM
rarely exceeded 3 centimetres in length. Geometric
points, on the other hand, might have been formed
from small shards, but they were always geometric in
shape (trape.zoids, tríangles or segments of circles) and
were obtained using a special fracturing technique of
the laminar s upports.
lJ1 this phase the bow was certainly used, permittirtg precision shooting that was much greater than
ancient spear or arrow throwing. The microlithic
character of the industries, a teclmical feature which
was conuno11 to Holocene hunters, is linked to the
generalization of compom1d tools, as both arrows and
javelins are made up of varíous denticulated sílex
insertions in the same wooden shaft.
The Cocina cave (Dos Aguas, la Hoya de Buñol) is
the most representative site of the Geometric Epipalaeolithic period along the Mediterranean coastline
of the Iberian península, having provided an im-
portant amount of information on the clima te, scenery
and economic activities of the p eople who inhabited
this grotto between 8,000 and 5,000 years befare the
present. One of the most outstanding finds in this cave
WélS the artwork, including both portélble and mural
varieties, which has been preset·ved. This artwork
comprises él series of portable stone slélbs beélring
incised lines corresponding to él time immedlél tely
befare the élppearance of the first ceramic remains at
this site. Abstraction, linearity, geometrics and bilateral
symmetries are cleélrly shown in some examples, yet
their meaning remains a mystery. These examples of
portable art are complemented by a series of remains
of paintings of broken lines done in red ochre on the
walls of the cave, which were covered by layers of
sedimentary deposits. This artwork receives the name
of l inear-geometric art. All il1dicatations seem to point
to an artistic episode whose initial phase coincides
with the first impacts from the Neolithic age.
1
Sílex tools from the Cocina cave.
Scrapers, notched blades and trapeziums from the Coci na 1
phase. Geometric Epipalaeolithic: between 8,000 a nd 7,500
years ar. Le ngth of largest piece: 4.8cm.
54
[page-n-55]
Silex tools from the Cocina cave.
Blades w ith signs of use, no tched blades,
microburins, trapeziums, tria ngles and
"Cocina"-type triangles fro m the Cocina U
phase. Geometric Epipalaeolithic:
between 7,500 and 7,000 years Br.
Le ngth of largest piece: 4.9cm.
1
Silex tools from the Covacha de Llatas cave (Andilla).
Blades with sig ns of use, notched blades, tra peziums,
triangles and do ubled-edged segme nts. Geometric
Epipalaeoli thic: between 7,000 a nd 6,500 years ar.
Length of l¡¡rgest piece: 3.8cm.
55
[page-n-56]
[page-n-57]
Globular-bodied ceramic jug with
elongated neck and cardial impressions
from the Co va de I'Or (Beniarrés).
Lower Neolithic: between 5,000 and 4,200
BC. Height: 28.3cm.
Room VI is dediroled lo lile firsl iullnbi/1111/s of lile regio11
sllowiug sig11s of crop-growi11g 1111d 1111i11ml lwsbmrdry. Tire birtll of
11gricrtllrtre is 11 plleiiO
IIrl!IIO of Medilerm11e11rr origi11 wlriclr is well docu11re11led i11 lllis 11re11 ns of
II
7,000 years before /he prese11/. 11 was n//Iris lime tlln/ rrew mnlerinls were i11/rodrrced, pnrlicrr fnrly
cemmics, rrew plmrls were growrr n11d nuimn/s were domes/icnled. Tlle mn/erinls ftrrrrislretf bytlle
Cova de I'Or i11 Be11inrrés nutf //re Snrsn cnve iu Bocnire11f reflec/ clmrrges in lifestyle, willr ncw
i11rplements in s/one flnke, polislretf sto11e, bone, nnd most pnrlicrrlllrly, /he pcrfectiorr of lile first
cemmic wnres decornted usi11g cnrdirrm s!rell impressions prior lo firiug.
VI. THE NEOLITHIC:
THE FIRST FARMERS
Tilling the soil to plant crops and breeding
domesticated animals is the natural way to obtain food
today, but these activities we1·e completely unknown
to men of the Palaeolithic and the Mesolithic. By adapting to this new way of life, human societies initiated a new stage of development which we now calJ
the Neolithic. This term origú1aUy had a chronological
and teclmological meaning, because the Stone Age
was separated into an old period, or Palaeolithic, and
another newer stage, the Neolithic, characterized by
the appearance of new tools made using polished
stone, a development which occurred in what is called
the Recent period in geological tenns. The word Neolithic today, however, has come to mean a period in
which man's econonúc activities changed primarily
from hunting and gathering to planting and harvesting and animal husbandry, bringú1g with it sedentary
populations, an increase in the number of human
groups, more complex social structures and new religious beliefs.
It was in the Near East, specifically in the area of
Syria and Palestine and in the foothills of the Zagros
Mountains in Iraq and Iran, where the fii"st steps towards the production of food from the soil were made
in the tenth and eleventh milleruúa before Christ. The
favourable biogeograplúcal conditions of tlús region,
with an abundance of vegetable and a1úmal resources
which were easily exploitable and potentially tamable,
in addition to the intensification of food gathering and
storage practices, propitiated man's settlement in
villages comprising groups of mesolithic or epipalaeolithic hw1ters and the itútial development of agricultura! and livestock-raising economies.
The incorporation on the Iberian peninsula of this
new lifestyle, based on wheat and ba1·Iey growing and
the rearing of goats and sheep, formed part of a pro-
57
[page-n-58]
PREIIISTORY MUSEUM
cess that extended throughout coastal areas of the
Mediterranean, from east to west, throughout the sixth
millennium. [n the region of Valencia, approximately
5,000 years befare Christ, there are numerous archaeological sites, the majority of which are caves, showing
a material cu ltural including ceramic recipients, sílex
axes, bone spoons and rings, bracelets and axes of
poüshed stone, among many other elements which
were formerly unknown, plus the remains of cultivated cereals and domestic anin1als. These are the
testimonies of the first farming commwuties wluch
shared the territory with the last groups of huntergatherers, albeit for a relatively short time.
Pottery is one of the new arrivals in the Neolithic.
The oldest ceramics in the Mediterranean zone present
a special type of decoration placed on U1e objects
before they were fired using mainly one type of
instrument, the edge of the Cardium edule shell, giving
rise to the na me of cardial ceramics. The distribution of
these ceramic wares along the coasts of the
Mediterranean, corresponding to the time of impressed pottery cultures, together with the settlement
of the islands and the gradual influx of Neolithic
lifestyles from east to west, reinforce the concept of the
Mediterranean having always been an important
source of culture.
Thc study of decoration styles on ceramic wares
and of stratigraphic layers at archaeological sites are
ilie major references used for establishing the evolution of the Neolithic in the region of Valen cia. The
first stage, the Lower Neolithic, is characterized by the
predominance of cardial pottery and spans the fifth
millennium before Christ. The next period, called the
Middle Neolithic, is associated with the disappearance
of cardial ornamentation, which was replaced by incised, channelled and printed decorations made using
a variety of instruments. This style, although it was
known in the former period, became donúnant at Uús
time. The fi nal stage, or Upper Neolithic, started in the
fourth millennium befare Christ, and is marked primarily by scratchwork decorations, although ceramic
production soon became dominated by undecorated
vases, giving rise toa renovation in style that served as
a prelude to the next stage, ca lled the Aeneolithic or
"bronze and stone" age.
58
New domestic and artisan production activities
produced changes in traditional stone flake tecllniques, and experimentation began to occur. AlU1ough
the tradition was still of an eminently laminar character, carefully selected cores were now extracted and
appropriately prepared to form blades with flakes
which were much longer than they were wide. They
were used to make implements and weapons for daily
use, particularly knives, hole punches, drills and
scythe and javelin blades. Bone manufacturing, another traditional industry, also provided all kinds of
utensils required for daily activities, such as spoons,
tu bes, hole punches, needles, s patulas, clusels, planers,
plus other objects such as rings, pendants, hairpins,
and beads for collars, allused for personal adornment.
Lastly, stone polishing technology represented a new
step forwa rd in the development of prehistoric stone
industries, with new techniques becoming fully generalized throughout the Neolithic. Polished stone was
used above all for U1e manufacture of axes and adzes,
tools which were closely related to forest clearing
activities and woodworking, in addition to objects of
personal adornment, represented by pendants, bead
collars and bracelets.
Economic activities are basic to a specific culture,
and this is why Neolithic communities were qualitatively different from those of the Palaeoliiliic. Neolithic
man was a farmer, living in a more or less settled
community, and he began to leavc increasing vestiges
of his presence in the territories in which he lived and
worked. The main testimonies to the practice of agriculture are the remains of ca rbonized seeds found at
archaeological sites. Pollen analyses are also used to
indicate the existence of crops and the tilling of new
soil for agricultura] use. At the Cova de l'Or in Beniarrés, for example, an abundance of carb01uzed seeds
were found, revealing the cultivation of various types
of wheat, such as scandula, a small variety of spelt,
and common wheat, and also of various types of early
barley. Wheat and barley were unknown to iliis territory before this time, and therefore these cereals must
have been introduced from abroad.
The remains of animals, mostly leftovers from
anima ls used as food, reveal the importance of
[page-n-59]
Polished s tone axeheads from the Sarsa cave (Bocairent).
Neolithic: between 5,000 a11d 3,000 ar. Length of largest piece: 12.8cm.
domestic animals, paJ'ticularly goats and sheep, as
welJ as the cow, pig and dog. In the ovine and caprine
families, sheep were the most common animals, and it
seems that they were mainly used for the obtention of
meat rather than núlk or wool, and the same use was
made of cows and swine. And just Like wheat and
barley, the agriotypes, or "wild" ancestral forms, of
modern-day sheep and goats did not exist in this
region as in the rest of Europe, so once again they must
have been introduced in their domesticated forms
during the neolithization process.
Abundant remaü1s of deer and rabbits, and to a
lesser extent those of roebucks, mountain goats, wild
boar, horses and aurochs, with a few birds and reptiles
too, attest to the importance of hunting activities for
the supply of furs, leather and antlers, in addition to
meat. The gathering of wild fruits and honey is documented in certain rock-shelter or cave paintings, although direct evidence through physical remains is
limited to acorn eating. Fishing was important in sites
near the coast, such as the Cendres cave in Moraira,
where the remains of monkfish, porgy, pandora, gilthead, sea bass, and others have been found, in
addition to vestiges signifying that much use was
made of sea mollusks, such as limpets and winkles.
Apart from providing information on amb ient cond itions, sedimentology, palynology, or the study of
fossilized pollen and plant spores, and antlU'acology
coincide in reflecting the progressive ü1fluence of maJl
on the environment during the Neolitlüc age. Agriculture and farming caused important changes in man's
relation to his surroundings. Whereas Palaeolithic and
Mesolithic populations used the forest as a means of
s ubsistence, using its resources in a controlled or ]imited fashion, crop-growing and animal grazing produced a situation that was to become progressively
more aggressive with respect to the environment,
59
[page-n-60]
Silex tools
from the Cova de I'Or.
Trapeziums and
triangles, drills and
polished blades used
as scyl he teeth. Lower
Neolithic: between
5,000
and 4,200 or.
Length of largest piece:
6.9cm.
60
[page-n-61]
PREHISTORY MUSEUM
resu.lting in the creation of larger treeless spaces. It was
at this time that the felling of trees and slash-burning
techniques were unbridled and accompanied the
practice of agriculture and livestock rearing un ti! only
recently. In this way, mru1, sü1ce the NeoHtlúc, becru11e
an active agent in ecological degradation, üútiating a
course that has continued practically w1abated down
to the present time.
The Cova de l' Or (Beniarrés, el Comtat district) is
situated on the eastern spurs of the Benicadeli siena,
dominating the valley of the Alcoi, or Serpis, river.
Excavations done here have shown a stratigraphic
sequence that covers many of the developments of the
Neolithic. Very important ceramic collections were unearthed here, as well as utensils, arms and adornments
manufactmed in bone, silex, polished stone, shells and
other materials. As in other cases, carbonized grains of
wheat and barley were fow1d, dated using carbon-14
to 4,315 and 4,770 years BC. Interdisciplinary studies
performed at the site, mainly including sedimentologists, palynologists and anthracologists, have enabled the evolution of the clirnate ru1d scenery to be
recons tructed during the Yalendan Neolitlúc. Landscape is thought to have been comprised of a Mediterranean-type forest with thennophile undergrowth,
with an abundance of pines, kermes oaks or gall oaks
depending on local conditions at different stages, with
episodes of colder and drier weilther or hotter and
more hunúd conditions.
The Sarsa cave (Bocairent, la Vall d' Albaida
district) is located on the northwestern spurs of the
Serra Mariola. Materials having been recovered here
comprise a rich assembly showing that it was used as
a settlement Hke many other caves down wltil the end
of the Neolithic. It also served as a bw·ial site, with at
least seven individuals having been :inhumed here,
witl1 two buried together in a narrow crack in the
interior, separated from the inhabited zone. Together
with the osseous remains of these two hw11ans were a
vase with cardial decoration and some pieces of bone
and sílex, interpreted as mortuary offerings. These
burials indicate the existence of funera l rites in the
early Neolithic and prove that cave burial h·aditions in
the region of Valencia reach back as far as that time.
Polis hed stone bracelet from the Sarsa cave.
Lower Neolitluc: between 5,000 and 4,200 sr.
Diameter: lO.lcm.
61
[page-n-62]
Twin jug with impressed cardial
designs (rom ú1e Cova d e I'Or.
Lower Neol.ithic: between 5,000 and 4,200 ar.
Length: 14cm .
Small cask-shaped jug with impressed
combtooth designs from the Cova de I'Or.
Lower Neolilhic: between 5,000 and 4,200 BP.
Height: 8.8cm.
62
[page-n-63]
Globular-bodied ceramic jug
with neck and cardial impressions from
the Cova de l'Or. Lower Neolithic:
between 5,000 and 4,200 BP.
Height: 16.3cm.
Vase with impressed cardial decoration
from the Cova de l'Or.
Lower Neolithic: between 5,000 and 4,200 Br.
Height: 23.2cm.
63
[page-n-64]
[page-n-65]
Globular-bodied ceramic jug
with ncck ;md impressed combtooth
decor;¡tions from the Cova de I'Or.
Lower Neolithic:
between 5,000 0111d 4,200 Bl'.
Height: 22.4cm.
<1
Large cylindrical cernmic vase
with impressed cardíal designs
from the Cova de I'Or.
lower Neolithic: between 5,000 and 4,200 BP.
Height: 48.5cm.
Bone ring
from the Cova de l'Or.
Lower Neolithic:
between S,(XX) and 4,200 ar.
Diameter: 2.9cm.
65
[page-n-66]
Bone need les and punches
from the Cova de I'Or. Neolithic:
betwecn 5,000 and 3,000 BP.
Length of largesl piece: 12.2cm.
Bonespoons
from the Cova de l'Or. Lower Ncolithic:
between 5,000 and 4,200 Bl'.
Length of largest piece: 20.8cm.
[page-n-67]
Ornamental pieces from the
Cova de l'Or. Necklace beads
and pendants made
(ro m shell and hone.
Neolithic: between 5,000
and 3,000 BP. Length
o( largest piece: S.Ocm.
.;~> ·i. ,~~:~·:~~\,~;. ~.~~-·~· ......:',..:
.
~ :t~'·
•
\
J ~~ ,· .
r
'<
~
......'··.
•
··.¡'.·r!'t*
.
,.,1
•.
•
i
,
·
- .·
.
Sand stone hand mili
(ro m the Cova de l'Or.
Neolithic: between 5,000
and 3,000 sr.
Length: SOcm.
67
[page-n-68]
[page-n-69]
Fragment of ceramic vase with impressed
cardial decoration from the Cova de I'Or.
The central motif shows two figurines
with uplifted arms in ¡m attitude of prayer.
tower Neolithic: between 5,000 and 4,200 BP.
Height: 7.2cm.
Room VIl offers n selec/iou of posi-Pnlneolitlric nrl,
correspoudiug lo lile firsl form en; nud liveslock herders, nud lile /muliug
grortps sli/1 active ni lile stnrt of tfre Neoliflriznliou process. Tire selectioulrns been lnkeu from tfre
rack siJelters of Pln de Pelmcos iu Cnsle/1 de Cnstells, lile Snrgn iu Alcoi, tite Vnl//orln mviue iu
Tfrig, Alboctisser mrd Caves de Viuromti, lile Gnsnlln rnviue iu Ares del Maestral, mtd lile Arntin
caves iu Bicarp, nmoug olhers. In ndditiau lo pnrietnl or mr11·n/ nrl, 1/rere are exnmples of porlnble
nrt 011 ccmmic wnres foulld in lite Covn de I'Or iu Beninrrés nud tite Snrsn cnve in Bocnire11t.
Tltese hove been doled lo lile seveutlt millerwirtm befare lile preseul irt view of lile fnct tlrnl //rey
slrnre lile snme motifs nud probnbly lile snme symbolism ns lheir rock she/ter corwterpnrls.
VII. POST-PALAEOLITHIC ART
IMAGES ANO BELIEFS
New artistic CllTrents arise at the end of the
Palaeolithíc in the region of Valencia with so-called
Linear-Geometric Art, pertaining to more recent
epipalaeolitlúc stages and using incisions on small
stone slabs or plaques and paintings in red on tJ1e
walls of certain caves. Almost simultaneously, as of the
fifth uúllem1ium BC, at the outset of the Neolitlúc,
other artistic cycles begin to appear responding to the
name of Macroschematic Art, Levantine Art and Schematic Art. These are always paintings executed on the
walls of rock sheJ ters or overhangs, although they do
presenta striking similarity with the decorative motifs
used on sorne ceramic wares, providing a clue to their
chronology. In addítion to these artistic cycles, there
are other series of engravings on rock showing fusiform and geometric shapes with more imprecise
cuJtural and temporal references; they have also been
found in depressions excavated in rock, sometimes
joined by narrow cham1els.
Macroschem.atic Art can be found mainly in the
rock shelters of the districts of the Marina Alta, el
Comtat and 1 Alcoia, in the same territory formerly
'
occupied by farming and herding communities, and
whose religious concerns were clearly indicated in
their art, which is exclusive to Valencian lands. The
human figure is the dominant theme, shown in
various shapes and positions, such as with raised arms
and splayed fingers or in an attitude of prayer. Also
abundant are snake-like forms tipped with lines
looking like fingers, wlüch occasionally jut out from
concentric circles, along with other geometric motifs
wlüch are more difficult to interpret, always in large
sizes and in a dark red colour. The presence of the
same motifs on ceramic vases with cardial impressions
enables us to date these artistic manifestations to the
fifth millennium BC.
69
[page-n-70]
PREHlSTORY MUSEUM
These rock-shelter paintings and ceramic vases,
which in sorne cases rnus t have been religious
sanctuaries and cult objects, respective!y, hold the keys
to the new magico-religious ideas penetrating into
Valencian territories with the first groups of cropgrowers and during the s ubsequent process of
neolithization over the Mesolithic subs trata.
Levantine Art is characterized by pronounced
naturalism Íl1 its representations, al ways painted on
the walls of shallow rock s helters. Men, wornen,
anirnals and cornmonplace objects and hunting articles
are the principie themes that can be found either in
isolation or forming part of generalizcd scenes. Among
the latter are huntil1g scenes and sorne war scenes,
with processions and executions. Men are usually
armed with bow and arrow, and animals frequently
appear with arrow wow1ds. Women form part of dayto-day sccnes and others of possible religious conte11t.
Because it can be found superimposed on
macroschematic paintings in the rock shelters of La
Sarga Íl1 Alcoi and the Benialí ravine in Castell de
Cas tells, and in view of the similar motifs used on
ceramics found at the Cova de l'Or in Beniarrés,
Levantine Art in the region of Valencia can be dated to
the final s tages of the fifth millennium BC. It is
therefore part of the Neolithic chronology and helps us
to w1derstand the processes of cultural cl1ange that
began here as a consequence of the appearance of
agriculture and livestock breeding.
Schematic Art consists of a highly elabora te forrn of
artistic manifestation from the conceptual viewpomt
using the coloUI red and only exceptionally the colour
black to depict on the walls of shallow rock shelters
either schematic human figures or geometric motifs
which are always simple Íl1 s hape. Anthropomorphic
shapes are usually reduced to simple stick figures to
indicatc the trunk, occasionally prolonged to indicate
the head or the sexual organ in males. Zoomorphic
figures consist of a horizonta l line for the body and
s tick legs, with the occasional addition of horns
identifying certaÍ11 species. Geometric motiis axe more
abundant, with ru1 axray of bars, points and circles.
Also characteristic of this kind of art are astral motifs
and representations of idols, a clear expression of the
symbolic character of this kind of art which was begun
in the fifth millennium BC and reached its moment of
maximum development coinciding with the multiple
burial epoch of the Aeneolithic, or Copper Age.
Cask-shaped vase with impressed
cardial decoration from the Cova de l'Or.
Between the ring-shaped handles is an
anthropomorphic "X"-shnped moti f.
Lower Neolithic: between 5,000 and 4,200 BP.
Height: 7.4 cm.
70
[page-n-71]
Fragment of ceramic vase
with impressed combtooth decoration
from the Cova de I'Or. Figurative
head and upper portion
of horned goa t. Lower Neolithic:
between 4,500 and 4,000 Br.
Heigh t: 10.3cm.
Fragment of ceramic vase
with incised decoration
from the Cova de I'Or,
showing se hematíe d rawi ng
o( a deer and part
of two others underneath.
Upper Neolithic:
between 3,500 and 3,000 Br.
Height: 5.6cm.
71
[page-n-72]
[page-n-73]
<1
Antier ido! with eye engravings
from Ereta del Pedregal (Navarrés).
Possible representation of the "Mother Goddess".
Aeneolithic: Approximately 2,500 BP.
Length: l8.0an.
Room vm iulroduces us to more complex l111mnu
groupiugs nurl tlreir cnve sepulclrres of tire Aeueolillric, or Copper Age. Tire
geuemlizntiou of ngricrtllurnllife briugs nbout tite prolifernliou of se/1/emeuts 11ext lo croplnurls,
suc/r ns Eretn riel Pedregal iu Nnvnrrés, witlt sequeuces tlrnl eucompnss tire eulire 3rrl millet111i1mr
befare Cl1risl, llre periorl rluriug wlric/r tire first copper implemeuts nppenr. Fu11ernl riles ncquire
mnjor importn11ce, nurl nnturnl caves nre usetl ns collective 11ecropolises, suclt ns tite Pnstom cnve
in Alcoi, wlrere flmemry offerillgs nud religious objects n11rl irlols wcre plncerluext lo borlies of llre
decensed. Of specinl interesl nre /he trepnnnted skulls found in tlris snme cnw. The fiun/ pnrt of t/1e
periorl is kuown for its cnmpnuiform, or be/1-slmperl, cernmics nurl the c/mrncterislic nrticles
iuc/uderl i11 funeral n11tl werlrli11g offeriugs. The Covn rlels Gnls ;, Alzirn provirletl nbuurlm11
mnterinls, n11d o//ter importn11/ siles from this period nre tite P1111lnl settlemeut over the
Cnslellnrdn rnviue iu Llfrin, the Casi/e Slope cnve i11 Chiva, Jite Cnm( Reinl ti'Alncnllt cnve in
Albnitln, tl1e Bnrrnuc del Cnslelld cnw i11 Cnrrícoln, nud the Pedrera d wsm iu Beuicu/1, nmoug
oll1ers.
VIII. THE AENEOLITHIC:
THE COPPER AGE
Agriculture and livestock rearing leads to a life of
fixed abodes. Farming communities settle near their
croplands, erecting l1ouses and providing social structures which are progressively more complex, while
making man's presence in the territory much more
noticeable. It is a process which was initiated in the
Neolithic and became more intensive at this time,
particularly as of the middle of the 3rd miUennium Be,
when tl1e first metal instruments appear. These tools
were made of copper, giving their name to the new
period: the Aeneolithic or Cop per Age. Also
characteristic of the age is the use of natural caves in
the vicinity as large-scale necropolises, reflecting pertnanent settlements in the area, and changing sociaJ
relations and religious ideas.
Newly-founded settlements seek proximity to
watercourses. In general, the only remains of these
settlements having been found are tlle structures
which were excavated in the subsoil: round-walled
silos for storing cereals, and moats in V-shapes cut into
the ground, interpretable as defensive or drainage
structures for nearby croplands. Huts were made of
wattle and daub and have therefore Ieft very few
remains. These settlements were distributed over the
en tire Valencian region, the most outstanding of which
are Jovades in Cocentaina, Niuet in Alquería d' Asnar,
Atareó and Beniprí in Belgida, Arenal de la Costa in
Ontinyent, Macolla in Villena and Vil·la Filomena in
Vila-real.
Nevertheless, Ereta del Pedregal (Navanés, La
Cana.l de Navarrés district) is the best known example
of a Copper Age settlement. Discovered in the 19th
century by]. Vilanova y Piera, it is located in a marshy
area known as La Marjal, in whlch the groundwater
73
[page-n-74]
PREHJSTORY MUSEUM
table reaches the foundations of the settlement. During
the initial phase of occupation, towards the end of the
Neolithic and the beginning of the Aeneolithic, constructions were wattle and daub huts on stone
fotmdations. Later, coindding with the appearance of
metal tools during the Mid-Aeneolithic ru1d the
Campruillorm horizon, stone was used to erect socles
or plinths on which the walls were then erected.
Archaeological materials found at this site show
that everyd ay life in the farming communities
revolved around food preparation, ceramic manufacturing, fabric and basket weaving, and bone and silex
too! manufacturing, plus the production of adornments and religious objects whicl1 would la ter be used
as funeral offerings. As new farm lands were ploughed,
the forests receded, and expanses of croplands extended outwards from eacl1 settlement, with mOLmtain
lands beiJ1g used as pastures for aniJnal grazing. The
most important fann aniJnals were sheep and goats,
but hunting still conserved its importance as a means
of protecting crops against large herbivores, for
contributing to the food supply and providiJ1g complementary materials sucl1 as furs and antlers.
During the Aeneolithic, silex instruments carne up
against a strong competitor in the form of copper tools.
The arrival of this new material forced mru1ufacturers
of sílex implements to d evelop and perfect their tecl1niques, and ktúves and arrow points began to rival
their metal counterparts. The abundance of arrowheads found iJ1 settlements and funeral offeru1gs point
to the importance of the bow and arrow as a personal
weapon, although they may also indicate unrest and
armed conflict between groups. Silex-tipped arrows
were iJútially lozenge shaped or bore small side stubs
at the begiJming of the period, whereas peduncle
shapes with wings dommated at the end of the period.
The oldest evidence of copper making on the
lberian petúnsula corresponds to the first half of the
3rd millem1ium BC. The pioneers were the centres of
the Millares culture in the southeast and on the lower
course of the Tagus river on the Atlantic coast. At Ereta
del Pedregal the appearance of the first metal objects
corresponds to the height of the Aeneolithic, iJ1 the
second half of the 3rd millennium BC. These new
74
objects were punches, arrowheads, axes ru1d a few copper slag fragments, with minimtm1 amow1ts of other
elements such as arsetúc, whicl1 were only impurities
inherent to the metal used for fow1dry work, ie, they
were not alloys of any killd.
Ideas about life and death showed signs of evolution among farnúng corrunwúties. A new funeral
rite indicated that religious beliefs had cl1anged, and ÍJ1
most of western Euro pe, the dead were now placed m
megalitlúc chambers. In the Valencian region, megalithic tombs were substituted by natural caves, as in
the case of the Pastora cave (Alcoi, 1 Alcoia district),
'
wlücl1 has provided over seventy-five iJ1dividuals
whose remains had been grouped together to form
funeral packages following de-boning, with offerings
and idols or images being left by their sides, indicating
some sort of belief in an afterlife. The idols buried with
the dead, beruing a central eye motive accompatúed by
bands of curved fu1es fonning a facial tatoo and an
indication of gender, have been encotu\tered aU over
the Iberian Pe1únsula and can be identified with the
Mother Goddess cult.
The sheer number of burials in some caves indicated that they were used as necropolises for a nearby
settlement over a long period of time. The most
irnportant of these are the Llometes cave of Alcoi,
providing over fifty adult individuals; the Barcella
cave of Torre de les Ma.;ru1es, thirty; the Cami Reial
d' Akant cave m Albaida, nineteen; the Lechuzas cave
in Villena, over eighteen. In various skulls found in the
Pastora cave the practice of trepanation or intentional
perforation was evidenced, and no signs of pathological alterations can be appredated to justify an
operation of tlús kind. Experts are therefore of the
opiJúon that these were ritual or empirical practices
with no real therapeutic effect. The survival of some of
these individuals was demonsh·ated in three cases
owiJ1g to signs of bone regeneration, whereas others
can be classified as posthumous trepanations.
At the end of fue Aeneolitlúc one particular type of
ceranúc ware was distributed throughout a lru·ge part
of Europe, called the Campaniform Vase. It was present in settlements and above all in burials. The name
campaniform is a description of the vase's profile in
[page-n-75]
Di verse types of sílex arrowhead from Ereta d el Pedregé\1.
Aeneoljthic: between 2,700 and 2,200 BP. Length of largest piece: 6.5cm.
the shape of a bell or tulip. They are fine-paste ceramk
wares fired at high temperatures with surfaces decorated with the impression of a comb or using incised
lines, fonning horizontal bands, triangles and gridworks. Pots, pans and goblets completed the repertoire of forms. Their wide diffusion, and the association of the Campaniform Vase witl1 tl1e generalization
of metal in funeral offerings, were at first interpreted
as proof of the existence of a p rospecting and metalmaking settlement with excellent ceramists and
metallurgists, moving throughout Europe in the
second half of the 3rd millennium BC. At present,
however, tlús explanation has given way to the existence of campaniform elements over such a large territory due to a growing desire for social and cere-
mon ial preshge in funeral traditions.
The term Campaniform Horizon is used to highlight the new developments of the last two centuries of
the 3rd millennium BC and the beginning of the 2nd.
Coincidil1g with campanjfonn ceramics a new modeJ
of settlement began to consolida te itself: villagers
began to prefer high mountain peaks, although huts
and silos were stiJI maintained on the lowlands.
El Puntal over the Castellarda Ravine (Uíria, el
Camp de Túria district) is an example of a new
Aeneolithic village occupying the sununit of a mowltain and part of its slopes. Documented structures
indicate there was a waU, a circular tower at the
highest point, and independent dweUings of an oval
75
[page-n-76]
Silex tools from Ereta del Pedregal. Scrapers, dagger blade fragment and large sickle teeth. Aeneolithic:
between 2,700 and 2,200 BP. Length of largest piece: 17.0oJ1.
shape with stone foundations and socles and mud
brick walls. In the interior of these brick huts, large
sized stones laid horizontally and vertically marked
the bases for posts that held up the roofs. Signs of
material culture testify to manufacturi..ng activities
such as ceranúcs and weaving, sílex working, with the
production of numerous arrowheads, and the prese.nce
of campanifonn ceramics. All this situates this
mow1tain village in the Full Aeneolithic and the
Campaniform horizon.
Fw1eral rites remained the same as lútherto, with
caves being used as burial sites, as indicated by the
76
Cova dels Ga ts in Alzira and the Pedrera chasm in
Po.linya-Benicull, but the number of inhtunations progressively decreases, with some burials taking place in
silos, such as those discovered at the settle.ment of
l' Atareó in Belgida. Funeral offeri..ngs and ex-votos
show that tl1e most representative articles were
daggers witl1 tongues for insertion in the handle,
arrowheads or spearheads and punches, al! three i11
copper; also of note are bone buttons with V-shaped
perforations and stone armplates for archers. Sílex
working sparks up for one last time with the presence
of noteworthy knife-blades and arrowheads.
[page-n-77]
Ant copper axeheads
from Ereta del Pedregal.
Aeneolithic: approximately 2,200 or.
Lengths: 15.0, 8.6 and 13.2cm.
Omaments from funera l
offeri ngs fou nd
at the Pastora cave (Alcoil.
S to ne and bone collar beads
and pendants, a nd 11 long
"Pastora"-type bone needle.
Aeneolithic: between
2,500 and 2,200 Br.
Length of largest piece: 16.0cm.
77
[page-n-78]
Fl¡¡ttened bone needles from ftmerill offerings
in the Pilsloril cave. Aeneolithic: between 2,500 and 2,200 BP.
Leng ths: 22.0, 17.2 and 15.7cm.
Bone idols with eye engravings and
ilnthropomorphic shapcs from the Pastoril
cave. Aeneolithic: betwcen 2,700 and 2,200 BP.
Length of largesl piece: 17.6cm.
78
[page-n-79]
Trepa nated cmnium, with signs of bone
regenem tion, from the P<1stora cave.
Aeneolilhic: approximately 2,500 ur.
Length: 19.0cm.
Silex d¡¡gger point showi ng base work for
handle insertion. Large silex plaque with
worked edge. Both from the Castle slope
cave in Chiva. Funeral offering pieces.
Aeneolithic: between 2,700 and 2,200 Br.
Lengths: 13.0 and 14.3cm.
79
[page-n-80]
Ceramic pot with impressed decoration from Camí de 1' Algofils (Belgida).
Campa1úiorm hori zon: between 2,200 and 2,000 er.
Height: lO.Ocm. Mouth dia.meter: 26.0cm.
Campaniform jug, bowls and vases with various types of decoration, from the Cova deis Gats (Aizira). Ceramic funeral offering ware.
CampaniJorm horizon: between 2,200 and 1,800 BP.
Height of largest vase: l2.0cm. Mouth diameter: 20.3cm.
80
[page-n-81]
Funeral offering objects from the Sima de la Pedrera (Benicull-Polinya de Xúquer) and Cova deis Gats CAlu ra).
Copper Palmela-t)'pe arrowhead, tongued dagger blade and punches; polished stone adze and archer's armplate;
sílex arrowheads; bone buttons with V-shaped perforations; collar beads and Oattened needle in bone.
Campaniform horizon: between 2,200 and 1,800 DI'.
Height of dagger: 14.5cm.
81
[page-n-82]
[page-n-83]
Aat copper <~xeheads
from Mils de Menen te (Alcoi)
and La Liorna de Be txi (Paterna).
Valencian Bronze culture:
between 1,800 and 1,400 BP.
Length of s mallest piece: 8.8cm.
Room IX fociiSt'S 011 !he Vnle11cin11 Bro11ze Age culture
begirmi11g i11 !he 2ud milleuui11m nc nud lnsliug nbo11t teu ceuturies.
Duri11g tlris time, IIL'W settlemeuts tvere fowrded, willr mo1111lniu-top sites sti/1 beiug i11linbittd
t/rro,glrolll tire regio11. Tlie use of metal becnme geuernlized. Midway tlrrouglr tire period tlie 11se
of brorru, 1111 alloy of cop¡Jer aud tiu, beca me ruidesprend. Tire materinls 011 display lrere correspoud
lo enrly excavalious 511clr ns Mns de Meueute iu Alcoi, Moln Alta de Serel/es iu Alcoi (providiug
a uotable col/ectiou of formdry moulds), nrrd Mrmlnrryetn de Cnbrern ;, Vednt de Torrerrt. Also
slrowu are 11rnlerinls gntliered from receut exarvntio11 cnmpiligus 1111dertnkeu ni L/omn de Betxí i11
Pntemn aud tire M1111tnuyn Assolndn i11 Alz.im, iu ndditio11 lo miscellnueous objects from otlrer
selllemeuts s11cli ns lnrge stomge jnrs from Eretn del Cnstellnr i11 Vilnfrnrrcn. Si11ce SOIIIliem
Vnleucinlllnrrds pertniued lo tlie El Argnr C
llll11re, tire IIIIISCIIIII lms n represeutative collectioll of
oújects tnkeu from sites iu Murcia nrrd Almerfn. Metnllurgy tec/miques ni tire e11d of tlie Bro11zc
Age are slrowu i11 compilrisoll lo n deposit J01111d nt tlie Huerln de Arriba sile;, B11rgos, IIOrlllem
SfX1iu.
IX. THE BRONZE AGE:
THE DIVERSITY OF CULTURES
As of the 2nd núllennium BC the region was extensively populated, with an abundance of settlements
located in high places. As building techniques in stone
and mud progressed, being adapted for use in
mountainous settings, these settlements began to
show signs of urbanization, with terraced p latforms,
walls and rectangular-shaped compartments, often
placed on either side of a central s treet. Material culture now incorporated a full range of metal utensils,
initially of copper and la ter of a copper and tin aUoy to
form bronze, witl1 stone industries being relegated
almost exclusively to sílex scythe teeth. As for burials,
these now tended to be either individual or including
only a sma ll number of individuals, perhaps signifying an incipient increase in social hierarchles.
The archaeological sites of Mas de Menente and
Mola Alta de Serelles (Alcoi, l' Alcoia district) were
the first Valencian Bronze Age villages to be excavated,
a tas k that was undertaken in t11e 1920s. Those early
findings u11earthed hlgh-altitude, walled villages, with
an abunda nce of materials such as large storage vases,
cooking pottery, wooden scythes with silex teeth, bone
hole punches and, above all, metal blades for daggers,
punches and axes. Economk activities were basically
wheat and barley growing and s heep and goat
herding.
At Mola Alta de SereUes, metalwork must have
been particularly important, as documented by t11e
presence of nine fotmdry moulds, all of which were
found in the same comparbnent. This is the largest
find having been made, although foundry work must
have becn done in other viUages, to judge by the
remains of s lag, melting pots, moulds and a variety of
remains of other metals. Despite this, metallurgy in the
83
[page-n-84]
PREHISTORY MUSEUM
Valencian Bronze Culture was seemingly held back
by the scarcity of mineral deposits in the region; it was
the southern El Argar Culture where metallurgy was
much more important, and, being located in a more
southerly area, villages in the present-day Alcoia
district certainly played a role in the dissemination of
teclmiques. A lack of tin deposits converted bronze
into a metal wlúch was highly prized, being used
primarily for adornment and arms, and becoming
widely used only towards the end of the period.
La Muntanyeta de Cabrera (Torrent, l'H orta
district) is another noteworthy village in the history of
research into the Valencian Bronze Age. It was
discovered by N. Prirnitiu and excavated in 1931 by M.
Jornet, although work only affected the upper section
of the hill w here this settlement was located. Structures
having been studied include a village wall and a
compartment butting against this wall. Discoveries
range from decorated pottery, metal, silex and bone
objects with triangular prism shapes, used to
manufacture buttons. Near the settlement was a small
burial cave.
A very significant collection of materials was
recovered from the vill¡¡ge of Ereta del Castellar
(Vilafranca, l' Alt Maestrat district). Excavations
carried out he re in 1957 w1earthed three rooms
separated by clay and stone walls, beaten-earth floors
and wooden posts used to support roofs, and inside
these dwellings were large storage vases decorated
profusely with raised filleting. Other elements provide
proof of a variety of economic activities: truncated
cone-shaped cheese moulds with open ends and a
perforated body, used to separate curds and whey;
ronnd, earthenware Ioom weights with four perforations; anda spindle whorl, indica ti ve of textile making.
Remains of carbonated cereals again evidence wheat
and barley growing, as do silex-toothed scythes.
During the last two decades, new excavations of
these villages have enabled us to deepen our knowledge of these stone constructions. Tn sorne cases they
reached notable proportions. Raised terraces, access
systems ;m d in general, much transformation of the
surrounding areas can be interp1·eted as a sign of
84
substantial levels of social cohesion. Our nnderstanding of these small settlements has therefore been
updated thanks to discoveries made at La Mw1tanya
Assolada in Alzira and La LJoma de Betxi in Paterna,
wlúd1 were both villages with a long history.
La Lloma de Betxí (Paterna, l'Horta district) is
situated next to the river Turia on a low-lying hillock.
The exceUent conservation of these archaeological remains provided interesting data on btúlding techniques and home utensils. Typical constructions
showed two upper rooms with a lateral passageway
measuring over 30 metres in length, 10 metres wide
and up to 4 metres ltigh, with stone walls dressed with
mud, and a sod roof over a !ayer of tree branches
supported by wooden beams. Household utensils consisted of ceramic, metal, stone and bone objects, plus
ornamental articles, d istributed in a storage zone and a
cereal milling zone equipped with an oven and work
benches in stone a11d mud; remains of fabric pieces
evidence textile weaving, and esparto grass debris
testify to basketry work. Han1mers, chisels and mallets
were fow1d next to a wall. In al! probability, it must
ha ve been a large communal building, possibly a warehouse, complete witl1 cistern next to the access road
and tall walls built using raised terraces along the
slopes, in addition to other u1dividual dwellings on the
higher part of the hill.
La Muntanya Assolada (Alzir a, la Ribera Alta
district) is representative of settlements located at
considerable heights, domi.nating n1 this case a large
part of the Xuquer river valley. The upper sections
show rectangular compartments dosed off by natural
cliff walls or by man-made walls, with a complex system of accesses and various lines of raised earthwork
around the settlement to form terraces. Studies have
given us a good pichtre of socio-economic aspects and
daily lile among Bronze Age peoples in this region.
The remains of animals provide evidence of a farming
community with a predominru1ce of sheep and goats.
The ox was used as a draught ru1imal, in addition to
providn1g meat ru1d milk, and pigs were also raised.
Crow hunting seems to have been undertaken as a
mP.ans of protecting gra in-producing crops, which can
therefore be considered to be extensive.
[page-n-85]
Sandstone mould
and cover for flat
axehead
and chisel making,
from Mola Alta de
Serelles (Alcoi).
Valencian
Bronze cult·u re:
between 1,800
and 1,400 Bl'.
Length: 20.0cm.
A buria1 cave in the proximity of the Muntanya
Assolada village shows signs of contiJmity in its use as
a necropolis, as observed in the Campaniform horizon.
But one individual burial has also been fow1d in the
interior of the village, as at the Peña la Dueña site in
Teresa, and at Altico de la Hoya in Navarrés, and
Atalayuela in Losa del Obispo, showing the diversity
obtaining during the Bronze Age as faT as funeral rites
are concerned, perhaps evidencing social diiferences.
Present-day Alicante distrícts to the south of the
Vinalopó river can be dassified within the El Argar
Culture, which was a brilliant manifestation of the
peninsular Bronze Age extending over present-day
Murcia, Almería and Granada. Important sites are Sru1
Antón in Orilmela, the castle slopes ii1 Callosa de Segura, or El Tabaia in Aspe. These villages show highly
developed urbanization, with constructions of a public
nature and facilities for storing aU sorts of goods required for commwuty life, in addition to strategic outposts and fortification systems overlooking farmlands
and controlling what appear to be trade routes. During
the El Argar Culture, necropolises increasing appear
inside dwelling places. These are usual! y individual or
double tombs, generally located in graves lined with
stone slabs, called cists, or in urns or large earthenwar
e
jars called pitlwi. Among funerary offerings frequently
placed next to the dead are blades, halberds, and metal
ornaments, as well as ceramic vases, objects made of
bone and others in stone, signiiying, in some
individuals, wealth, prestige, or power, and therefore
clear signs of existing social hierarchies.
The end of the 2nd millennium BC brought about ru1
intermedia te period between the Bronze Age and the
Iberian Culture. Decorated cerarnics origínating in
neighbouring regions and certain new forms of material culture indicate the beginning of a new stage.
Nevertheless, one of the most significant changes at
this time was a restructuring of the population, with
the majority of high-altitude villages being abandoned
il1 favour of occupation on flatlands or mountail1
85
[page-n-86]
Sícklc with silex tooth flakes and wooden
hilndlc found at Mas de Menentc.
Valcncian Bronze culture:
between 1,800 and 1.400 BP.
Length: •IS.Ocm.
Globular-body ccramic vase
with one handlc from Muntanya AssolildR
(Aizira). Villcncinn Bronze culture:
bctween 1,800 and 1.400 BP.
Height: 14.5cm; Mouth diameter: 14.0cm.
slopes. These newly created villages were oval in
shape and were often constructcd using perishable
materials. The economy continucd to be fueled by
farming and livestock rearing, but it was complemented in sorne districts by bronze manufacturing. Thus,
in the final days of the Bronze Age, thcre are welldocumented mining sites in the Valencian region
86
showing extensive activities: Penya Negra in Crevillent, and Mola d' Agres, which have both produced
foundry moulds used in Atlantic Bronze tool manufacturing, meaning that there was a faír amount of
commerce, probably carried out via the sea route. Also
pertaining to Atlantic Bronze manufacture are the
articles found at the Huerta de Arriba site in Burgos
[page-n-87]
Ceranúc bowl with
serrated edge from Castitlarejo
de los Moros (Andilla).
Valencian Bronze culture:
between 1,800 and 1,400 BP.
Mouth diameter: 22.4cm.
Earthenware spindJe whorl from
the Valencian Bronze culture
si tes of Mas de Menen te and
Ereta del Castellar (Vilafranca).
Between 1,800 and 1,000 BP.
Leng th of largest piece: 24.0cm.
87
[page-n-88]
Ceramic wares from
Liorna de Betxí.
Ho usehold pots,
bow 1and ílared va ses.
Valencian Bro nze culture:
between1,800 and 1,400 81'.
Mouth djameter of la rgest pot:
14.5cm. He.i ght: 12.0cm.
Cerarnic and metal materials
from eastern Andalusian
si tes at Pue rto Lumbreras,
Vélez Blanco and Guad ix.
Bowl and flanged vases, blade
with rivets and bronze spirals
from bronze funeral offerings.
El Argar culture:
between 1,800 a nd 1,400 or.
Length of largest blade: 20.0cm.
88
[page-n-89]
Arms ¡md metill objects
from the l-luertas de
Arriba si te in Burgos
(northern Spain). Bronze
l¡mce tip, dagger blades
and bracelets. Atlanlic
Bronze: between 1,200
and 800 Bl'. Length of
largest piece: 19.5cm.
Large storage vase with cord
decorations in relief from
Ereta del CasteUar. Valencian
Bronze culture: between 1,400 and
1,000 BP. Height: 74.0cm.
89
[page-n-90]
[page-n-91]
SECOND FLOOR
ROOM 1: THE M EDITERRANEAN W ORLD
ROOM U: THE lBERIANS
ROOM
lli: LARGE IBERIAN SETI1..EMENTS
ROOM IV: T HE lBERIAN H OME
ROOM V : LBERIAN FUNERAL R ITES ANO R EUGION
ROOM VJ: E DETA ANO ITS ENVIRONS
ROOM VU: I BERIAN W RITINO
ROOM VHI: l BERIAN COINS
ROOM
IX: THE ROMAN
ROOM
X: VALENCIAN COINS-
EPOCH
10TH-IJTH
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91
[page-n-92]
[page-n-93]
<1
Punic terracotta from the
sanctuary of La Cova des
Cuieram (Sant joan, Ibiza)
representing the goddess Tanit.
3rd C BC.
I-leight 16.2cm.
Tlie secoud floor dedicntes Rooms Jtlirougli VIII/o Iberia u
culture, Room IX coutnius Romn11 exliibils nud Room X s/iows 1/ie
Musemu's coiu collecliou . Room/ serves as a preseulatiou of lile coloui:zntiou era, ie, fromtlie 8111
lo 6th ceu/uries BC. Se/ iu a Mediterrnueau únckgrormd nre mmrerous amplrorns from various
epochs, brouglrl lo tllis regiou 1/rnuks lo 1/ie busy lrnde relatious belweeu consta/ peoples nud
trnders from nbrond. Tlrere are also iuteresliug co/lectious from tire Greek colouy of f.mpríries aud
tire Pmric colouy of Ibiza.
I. THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD
Ever since preh.istoric times the Mediterranean Sea
has provided a means of commun.ication and acculturation beh-veen the peoples in11abitiJ1g its shores. Over a
geography measuring 4,500 kilometres, from Gibraltar
to the Syrian coast, similar la.ndscapes and crops reflect
ways of life which are common to the majority of people
in the region. Navigation, wh.ich has been documented
since thc Neolithic, increased iJ1 frequency and in number of destinations as of 800 BC, when the Phoenicians
and Greeks carne westwards in search of metals and
new lands to cultivate. The Mediterranean was a stage
for continua! rivalry among Phoenicians, Etrusca.ns,
Greeks and Carthaginians, until the Romans finally imposed their authority and dubbed the entire sea as
simply Mnre Nostrwn.
During the lberian epod1 iJ1 the region of Valencia,
Phoenician, Greek, Etruscan, Punic and Roman amphoras reveal the importance of trade in products such as oil
and wine throughout the Mediterranean region. The
lberian peninsula exerted an attraction over Eastern
Mediterranean colonists and traders, who carne in
search of metals, and, toa lesser extent, agricultural products and other raw rnaterials. The installation of Phoenician factories in Ibiza, Cádiz, Málaga or Almuñécar as
of the 8th century BC, and the founding of Greek colon.ies
sorne time later, as of 600 BC, in Emporion and Rhodes
(Catalonia), were determinü1g factors in the acculturation process of local inhabitants, who began to
assin1ilate new influences little by little w1til they gave
rise to what we now know as the lberian Culture.
The island of Ibiza, strategically situated on the route
from the Orient to the legendary sites of Tarshish gold
and silver, was occupied by Phoetúcians until the mid7th century BC. It was here that one of the most original
rnanifestations of Punic Culture carne to flourish in
western Jands. Of note among thc rnany settlements
founded on the island is the rock-shelter sanctuary of Es
Cuierarn, where hundreds of terracotta models of the
pw1ic goddess Ta1út were unearthed. Also in1portant
was the cemetery of the city of Ebussus, called El Puig
deis Molins, where thousands of tornbs ha ve provided a
wealth of funerary offerings.
93
[page-n-94]
Empúries, located on the northern coast of Girona
province, is undoubtedly the best docwncnted Greek colon y on the Iberian peninsula. Emporion (lllnrketplnce] was
fow1ded by Hellenic traders around 600 BC and beca me a
doorway for the entry of new people, products, customs
and ideas from the Hellenic states, and its influence over
94
thc indigenous lberian world was sig nificant. Although
the colon y of Emporion is best known for its architecture
of Reman origin, t:his was erected over the original Greek
ruins, with the original Greek qua y in the port and its necropolis having been found. Tombs excavated in the earIy 20th century ha ve provided a wealth of remains.
[page-n-95]
Terracota púnica de la necrópolis
del Puig deis Molins (Ibiza).
Busto femenino. Siglos IV-111 a.C.
Alt.23'0cm.
Oenochoe púnico de pasta vítrea
del Puig deis Molins. Siglo V a.C.
Alt. 7'3cm.
Attic Lekythos from the
necropolis of Empúries (Girona).
5th-4th BC. Height 10.6cm.
e
Greck tcrracotta from the necropolis of
Emp(•ries. Woman with bare torso. 5th-4th
BC. Height 17.1cm.
e
95
[page-n-96]
[page-n-97]
lberian ex-voto in bronze
from the sanctuary
of Peal Becerro (Jaén).
Woman wrapped in long cloak.
6th-4th e oc.
Height 12.0cm. de
Roomll slarls willl a geueml iulroduclioulo lberia11 culture,
wllic/1 developed oullle peuiusula behveeu tire 61!1 aud lile 2ud ceulury ~c.
Presidiug lile Room is a hologram of lile Dama de Elx, complemeuled by cemmics, volive offeriugs
in bronze, anda mil/ wlleel. Tl1e origius of lhis culture are reflecled in txrrious siles perlainiug lo
lile iuitial slages, suc/1 as Los Vi/lares iu Caudete de las Fueules, Altea la Ve/la, l.n Soliuella i11
Alea/O de Xiverl, El Boverol i11 Almassom or El Puulalel, aud lile Caoo/1 c«ve iu Llíria.
II. THE IBERIANS: ONE CULTURE,
MANY SETTLEMENTS
The discovery of the Dama de Elche in 1897 and
subsequent excavations undertaken in the Alcúdia
settlcments in Elx, the Covalta de Albaida, La Serreta
in Alcoi, La Bastida de les Alcuses in Moixent and Sant
Miquel in Llíria converted the Valencian region in a
pioneering zone for knowledge of the lberian Culture.
Classical Greek and Latin authors gave the name of
iber-iberes to the inhabitants of the Mediterranean
coastal regions stretching from Andalusia to the
Hérault River in France. The Jberians, like the Greeks,
never achieved political unity, nevertheless, they
shared many features in common. These formed part
of the so-called Iberian Culture described by researchers, which developed from the 6th to the 2nd or 1st
centw·y BC, with traits comparable to those of other
Mediterranean cultures.
The existence of cities, where the ruling classes
lived, is the most characteristic feature of the Iberians'
political and social organization. The widespréad use
of metal and the potter's wheel marks their technological development. Similarly, the use of writing, the
existence of a system of weights and measmes, and
Iast but not least, the minting of coin all give an idea of
the degree of complexity achieved by lberian society.
Settlements in the region of Valencia have been
quoted in classical texts. The Ilercavones inl1abited
lands extending from the Ebro river to the Millars, and
their most important settlements are Moleta deis
Frares in Forcall, Puig de la Nau in Benicarló, Puig de
la Misericórdia in Vinaros and Torre la Sal in Cabanes.
The Edetanos lived in an area ranging southwards
from the Millars river to the Xúquer river, with important towns such as Solaig in Betxí, Punta d'Orleyl il1
Vall d'Uix6, and the cities of Sagunt/ Arse and Tossal
de Sant Miquel/Edetn in Llíria, Carencia in Turís or the
97
[page-n-98]
PREH!STORY MUSEUM
Pico de los Ajos in Yátova. The Cootestanos, with
settlements such as Xativa/Sniti, La Serreta in Alcoi,
Tossal de Manises in Alicante, Monastil in Elda, La
Alcúdia in Elx/Illici, La Escuera and El Oral in San
Fulgencio, occupíed the territory between the Xúquer
and the Segura rivers.
lberian Culture was the result of a process of
formation that first started in the 8th century se with
the founding of the first Phoenician coloníes in the
south of the peninsula. From these coastal colonies the
initial stimulus was provided, giving indigenous tribes
access to new products and new techniques. Thus, for
example, the grapevine, whose remains are documented in theAlt de Benimaquia in Dénía dating from
the 6th century se, was introduced for the benefit of
the local elite, who were increasingly interested in
emulating coloniallifestyles. In the Los Villares settlement in Caudete de las Fuentes, in Vmarragel in
Burriana and El Torrelló in Almassora, it is clear that
there was a progressive substitution of hand-made
ceramics by wares manufactured on the newly introduced potter's wheel. These developments contributed to greater stability within settlements, as new
technology brought growth and a greater concentration of populations, and new building methods as
well. In Los Saladares in Orihuela, and above al!, in
Penya Negra in Crevillent, organized town construction completely changed the face of former
prirnitive huts from the end of the Bronze Age.
The discoveries from the spurs of the Tossal de Sant
Miquel hill, known as El Puntalet and El Collado de la
Cova d el Cavall (Llíria, Camp de Túria district)
belong to this formatory period of the Iberian Culture.
In 1947, two burial areas dating from the end of the 7th
century and the mid-6th century se were excavated.
The remains of five incinerations were found inside a
number of burial urns, which turned out to ha ve been
made both by hand and on the wheel. One of these was
a Phoenician storage vessel with painted decoration.
The fu11era l offerings found along with the urns were
negligible.
98
Similarly, two handmade urns containing incinerated remains were found in pit tombs at El Boverot
(Almassora, La Plan a Alta district) in 1932. These
belong to the end of the Bronze Age, the 8th century BC,
just before the spread of colonial influences. These
burials probably formed part of a necropolis datiJ1g
back over a longer time and linked to the nearby
settlement of Torrelló (Almassora).
Other archaeologica1 sites and characteristic materials of the period indude Cabezo de Monleón
(Caspe, Zaragoza prov.), a village with stratigraphic
sequences dating from the 10th to the 7th centuries ac.
This settlement showed no signs of having used the
potter's wheel, and only hand-made ceramics with
channelled and mcised decorations typical of the end
of the Bronze Age have been found.
Los Villares (Caudete de las Fuentes, la Plana de
Utiel district), a large-scale site excavated as of 1956,
shows stratigraphíc sequences facilitating the study of
how the Iberian Culture was formed. Over a substrate
belongmg to the Late lron Age, characterized by handmade pottery, new influences from the coastal Phoenician and Greek colonies were superimposed during
the 7th-5th centuries BC. The best documented developments were ceramic wares made on potters' wheels
and objects made m iron.
The necropolis of La Solivella (Alcala d e Xivert,
Baix Maestrat district), where the dead were incmera ted, dates from the 6th to the first half of the 5th
century ac. This was excavated in 1961, when a total of
28 sepulchres were discovered, laid out in pit tombs.
All ceramics recovered from these sites were made
locally, on wheels, and the offerings accompanying the
incinerated remams were meta l objects used for
personal adornment and arms.
The necropolis of Altea la Vella (Altea, Marin a
Baixa district), discovered Íl11972, provided a number
of incinerations with only a few funeral offerings composed mainly of belt brooches and adornments. AH
funerary urns had small handles and were characteristic of the Old Iberian horizon, ie, the 6th-5th
centuries BC. One of the tombs was marked with a stele
on which a clothed and armed warrior is shown.
[page-n-99]
"Urnas de orejetas" (lidded
cinerary urns with perforated
handles) from the Iberian
necropolis of AJtea la Vella
(Al tea). 6th e BC. Height of
tallest um 33.5cm.
rberian ex-voto in bronze
from the sanctuary
of Despeña perros (Jaén).
4th e oc.
Height 6.0cm.
99
[page-n-100]
lbcrian vase decorated with banding
and fillets from the Los Villares
settlement (Caudetc de las Fuentes).
6th C BC. Height 36.7cm.
100
[page-n-101]
loninn cup from the Los Villares
settlement. From 530-500 years oc.
ll eighl 6.5cm.
Phoenician vase from
L'\ Cova del CavaU (Liiria).
7th-6th e oc.
Height 35.0cm.
101
[page-n-102]
[page-n-103]
<1
The "Warrior of Moixent",
an lberian ex-voto in bronze found
at La Bastida de les Alcuses (Moixent).
4th C BC. Height 7.3cm.
Room m preseuls fiuds fromlnrge-scnle Iberiau setflemeuts,
with their complex gridwork of streets nnd fortificntious, usiug ns 1111 exnmple lile citadel of 1.n Bastida de les Alcuses iu Moixe11f. Of uole here nre iro11 implemeuls,
adommeuts, arms, imported poltery oomished ;, blnck, nud pnrtiwlnrly, n dimiuutive yet illl·
pressive brouze votive offering k11owu as lile 'Wnrrior of Moi:w1t'. Completing li1e room is a
display of jewellery gathered from various si/es, n womnu's uecklnce, a small polychrome glass
matrix hend from Ln Cooolta de Albaida n11d n gold enrring from Penyn Roja i11 Llírin.
III. LARGE IBERIAN SETTLEMENTS AND THEIR
SURROUNDINGS: ECONOMIC ASPECTS
During the Iberian Culture the shape of the environment and the structure of the population changed dramatically in comparison to preceding periods. For the
first time, true cities began to exist, centres of activity that
exercised political and economic control over the
surrounding territory, which contained its own fabric of
farmlands, villages and towns. The land was protected
by fortresses, wh.ich were placed at strategic locations to
control the "frontiers" of each individual territory.
Excavations show that this society was unmistakably
sedentary in nature. It was organized in such a way as to
ensure appropriate defence. Iberiru1 settlements such as
La Bastida de les Alcuses in Moixent, La Covalta de
Meca in Ayora, El Puig in Benicarló, or La lleta dels
Banyet in Campello, located on meseta-topped hills or
on flat lands, presenta square-shaped ttrban layout with
large houses, surrounded by a walled enclosure with
sturdy towers. Of a more complex nature were the
hillside settlements such as El Tossal de Sant Miguel in
Llúia, El Tossal de la Cala in Benidorm or La Serreta in
Alcoi, where the topography called for more resourcefulness in plamung streets, with block layouts rising
terrace-like up the lilll. Other types of Jayouts are known,
such as small villages with one central street, unfortified
settlements and isolated towerhouses whicl1 were used
for a variety of purposes. The discovery of multiple-floor
buildings and religious enclosures are sorne of the Iesser
known aspects of lberian urbanization.
La Bastida de les Alcuses (Moixent, La Costera
district) was partially excavated between 1928 and 1931.
This was a settlement of Contestanos that only seems to
have ]asted a short 100 years, being violently destroyed
in the second half of the 4th century BC. It has a strategic
Jocation on one of the natural routes from the coast to the
inland meseta, known in Roman times as the Augustus
Road, and the course of the Vinalopó river flowing
103
[page-n-104]
PREHISTORY MUSEUM
through Alicante province. It had a walled enclosure
contai.ning as muchas six hectares, with four portals, one
of which was soon closed off, and three towers. lnside
the walls, the town is laid out in blocks with large
buildings facing onto a broad central street. Lead tablets
with Iberian script, a bronze figurine known as the
''Warrior of Moixent", a collection of Greek ceramic
wares and a set of farro and traders' implements are
some of the more important finds w1earthed here.
Agriculture and animal husbandry were the major
economic activities of the Iberians. The variety of farm
implements in i.ron, comprising ploughshares, ploughstaffs, spades, adzes, sickles, billhooks and picks, reveal
the importance of dryland farming where the emphasis
was on cereals. Other metal tools sucl1 as saws, clúsels,
drills, wlústles, trowels and needles reflect the importance of craftsmanship in the fields of quarrying, woodworking and leather-making.
Herds of sheep and goats were fwldamental for the
supply of meat and milk, and also for obtai:túng Júdes
and wool. Pigs were also raised for meat, whereas oxen
where mainly work ani.mals, and the horse was groomed
as a mow1t. Hw1ting wild ani.mals, particularly deef¡ the
wild boar or the mountain goat, was a complement to the
diet of noblemen, as was fishing or gatheri.ng wild fruits.
Clothing is only known i.ndi.rectly through statues
and ceramics. Women appear to have worn underskirts
and long tu.nics adorned with trimmi.ngs, over which
long tlúck cloaks, usually in purple, were wom as
protection against the cold. Footwear consisted of leather
slippers. Ceremonial raiment i.ncluded elaborate headdresses resting on coifs and comprisi.ng veils, tall mitres
and diaderns, and jewellery such as necklaces, earrings,
bracelets a11d rings. Men wore breeches and a short tu.nic
belted around the waist and long cloaks Ieavi.ng the right
arm free, clasped over the shoulder using a metal brooch.
Men also wore personal adornments such as earrings,
rings and bracelets. For battle, they used helmets, a
pectoral clipeus fastened with leather straps, and greaves
or shin armour.
Bronze tools, objects and instruments from La Bastida de les Alcuses.
Ring brooches, bell, tweezers, articulated compass, hook, button and pendant. 4th C BC.
Tweezer length 8.3cm.
104
[page-n-105]
Iberian ceramic: tableware with painted geometric decoration
from La Bastida de les Alcuses. Jug, vases, kylix, oenochoe and cup.
4th e BC. Height of tallest piece 17.lcm.
Attic: oenoc:hoe with black vamish
from La Bastida de les Alcuses.
4th e BC. 1-Ieight 13.7c:m.
105
[page-n-106]
Iro n farm implements from
Lil Bastida de les Alcuses.
Billhook, axe, pickhead, spade
and ploughshare. 4th e BC.
Length of biggest piece 25.2cm.
Gold lmir need le wíth
eh<~ in of 8 braided gold
cords from Lil Bastida
de les Alcuses. 4th e
oc. Length 29.3cm.
106
[page-n-107]
Gold pendant earring
from the Penya Roja
settlement (Liíria).
Decorated gold disc with
central rosette
surrow1ded by a circle of
18 faces, embossed and
stippled. 5th e BC.
Diameter 4.5cm.
Polychrome glass
matrix pendant of
Punic workmanship
from the eovalta
settlemenl (Albaida).
Bearded man's Cace.
4th-3rd e oc.
Height 3.7cm.
107
[page-n-108]
[page-n-109]
Ceramic foot-shaped guttas
from the Los Villares settlement.
Oil or perfume holder.
3rd C ac. Height lO.Ocm.
Room TV gives liS n pic/11re of rlomestic life al the time of the
/beria11 C
llll11re. Pnrl of 11 recol/slmcted lberinn dwe/liug slwws idenliu rl
nrens for ncl ivil ies SI/eh ns cooking, wenvi11g, milling nurl slomge. lt~rlepcnrlently, there is nlso n
rlisplny of beekeeping nurloil exime/ion nctivities. Tnblewnre, importerl lltXIII}f vessels nnrllnrge
sfornge recipienls brcmgltl from Los Vil/m·es in Cn11rlete rle las F11eutes complete litis overview of
lypicnl Iberian ltO
IISeholrl goorls.
IV. THE IBERIAN HOME
MateriaJs employed in the construction of lberian
houses included mud, stone and wood. Homes usually
had a stonewall foundation or plinth, over whi.ch adobe
walls were erected. These were faced with mud and
whitewashed, or occasionally, painted in reddish or
bluish colours. Roofs were flat, serving as te1Taces and
were composed of a thick gridwork of branches and
vegetable fibre set on beams and covered with a thick
!ayer of day. These homes were the centrepoint for all
domestic, craft and social activities. In large-scale
settlements, houses were divided into compartments
used for different purposes: the living quarters, or famiJy rooms, occupied the main area, where cooking and
textile work were carried out; storerooms containing
amphoras and other vessels were kept separately in
smaller, darker rooms. Other roorns were used for sleeping, milling work oras workshops.
Household goods were mainly composed of ceramíe recipients of one kind or a11other. Basketry or wooden implements existed, but evidence is limited to a few
carbonized remains. Thanks to the potter's wheel, many
different kinds of ceramic wares were produced in
varying sizes and shapes for storing, preserving and
serving food and drink. Finds indude a table service
comprising plates, cups, jars and bottles; small recipients for spices, ointments and perfume; occasional
pieces such as covers, strai11ers, bases and mortars; and
ritual vessels which are clearly imitations of imported
ware sucl1 as kraters (wine mixing bowls) and kylixes
(wide, shallow drinking bowls). For cooking purposes,
earthenware pots, bowls and dishes were made; these
were crude-looking but resistant, as they could be exposed to the flames directly without cracking.
Los Villares (Caudete de las Fuentes, La Plana de
Utiel district) is a prime example of an lberian regional
capital. It was known in its day as Kelin, the largest
settlement in the area. Excavations were first started in
1956, and show the evolution of the site from the 7th
century ac until its decadence and final abandonment
between the years 88 and 77 ac. It was located at an
intersection of the road from the coast to the interior and
the inland route to Temel, and served as a channel for
109
[page-n-110]
PREHISTORY MUSEUM
the dísh·ibution of commercial products, growing to
become the most important settletnent in the area on
which smaller enes depended for their livelihood.ln the
section havíng been excavated there is an urban layout
with large comparh11ented houses facing streets on
which horse or oxen-drawn carts could circula te freely.
The term "regional capital" is justified in view of the fact
that the town occupied some 10 hectares, it traded in a
variety of farm produce, it produced inscribed lead
tablets and produced its own coinage.
At La Seña (Villar del Arzobjspo, La Serratúa
district) and El Castellet de Bemabé (Llíria, Camp de
Túria district) a number of \·vhitewashed dugout pools
were foLmd in which carbonized olive stones were present. These were obviously used as olive curü1g tanks,
proof of the existence of olive oil production before the
arrival of the Romans. Oil was used in the preparation
and preservation of food, for lighting purposes and in
the elaboration of creams and oinhnents. For processiJ1g,
olives were packed into hemp nets, and these were
packed between stone millwheels, which were pressed
usü1g a screw system employing a wooden beam turned
by counterweights. The pressing ran out along radial
channels cut into the stone wheels, being deposited in a
sediJ11entation tank where the pure oil carne to the
surface. This pure oil was rw1 off into a second tank,
while the water and impurities were left in the first tank
Honey was used as a sweetener in ancient times. Although there are painted references to honey gathering
dating back to Prehistoric times, as shown in rock-shelter art, there is no physical or archaeological evidence of
beekeeping until the Iberian epoch. Settlements in the
Camp de Turia dísh·ict seem to have frequently used a
system of cylindrical ceramic vessels as beehives, with
the potter's ribbing left in relíef on the insides. Examples
of these have been fotmd at Puntal deis Llops (Olocau,
Camp de Túria district) and at Moruavana and El
Tossal de Sant Miquel (Llíria, Camp de Túria disb·ict).
Thís type of beehive, Wl1ich is still m use Ü1 Greece,
Cyprus, Egypt and Jm·dan today, a11d used w1til recent
days m Majorca and Andalusia, Spam, was considered
by Roman writers to be of very poor quality, as "they
ignite with the heat of the swmner and freeze with the
cold of winter" (Columella, Agricultllrn, IX, VI). They
were stacked on the ground horizontally, sealed with
cork or earthenware lids in which holes were made to
enable the bees to enter and exit. The ribbing mside
facilitated honeycomb adherence.
Attic kylix-skyphos, with red figures, from the Los ViUa.res sectlement,
showing Eros facing a youth wearing a himation. 4th C BC. Mouth diameter 12.5cm.
110
[page-n-111]
lbcrian iron keys from the El Xarpolar
(Magarida-Pianes) 11 nd Puntal deis Llops
(Oiocau) settlements. 3rd e oc. Length of
largest piece ll.5cm.
lberian kitchen cerilmics from Los Villares.
Pot, cups, pan and perforated charcoal
holder. 3rd e BC. Pan diameler 29.0cm.
eeramic beehive contai ne rs from the settlements of
Puntal deis Llops, El Tossal de Sant Miquel (Liíria)
and La Monravana (Uíria). 3rd-2nd e oc.
Length of largest piece 59.2cm.
111
[page-n-112]
[page-n-113]
<1
Terracotta perfume bumer
from Puntal deis Llops.
Representa!ion
of the goddess
Oemeter /Tanit. 3rd C BC.
Height 15.2cm.
Room V couceulmles 0 11 frmemry cusloms. From tire Corral
de Snus necropolis in Moixenl come n vnriety of seu/piures nud
orclritecturnl elemeuts Ollet! forming por/ of !berio11 lombs. Tire Perlas de Znrrn nnd Cnsn del
Moute uecropolises iu Vn/degnrrgn (Aibncele prov.) give us 11 view of frmernlums n11d offeriugs
for tire decensed, wlro were iuciuernted, os we/1 os wnrriors' omrs. Also slrowu ore child lmriols
from Cnstellet de Bemnbé iu Llrria, ex-votos from Desperinperros, terracottn from Prmtnl deis
L/ops iu Olocau nud votive offeriug jors from Prmtnl del /-lom o Ciego cove in Villorgordo del
Cnbriel, n/1 correspoudiug lo pinces of worship.
V. IBERIAN FUNERAL RITES
AND RELIGION
The lberians incinerated their d ead, a process
which was accompanied by the burning of aromatic
herbs. The ashes of the deceased were then carefully
collected and deposited in a locttlus, with or without an
urn. Together with these incinerated remains, funera l
offerings were placed in tombs. These offerings were
objects that indicated the social status of the deceased,
such as luxury ceramics, weapons or tools; personal
ornaments such as brooches or necklace beads, and in
sorne cases figurines, amulets or food offerings. Any
munber of ceremonies could be held during the celebration, such as libations, funerary games, processions
or corteges, and banquets. Common graves in Iberian
necropolises or cemeteries were mere pit tombs, or
holes dug in the ground covered with a mound of
earth or stone. Luxury sepulchres were stone or adobe
barrows, marked by pillars or stelae or tower-s haped
monuments, expressing princely status. Tombs, in any
case, were anonymous and only after the Roman con-
quest did funerary stones begin to bear any
engravings, as evidenced by the Sinarcas gravestone.
El Corral de Saus (Moixent, La Costera ctistrict) is
a necropolis which was excavated in the 1970s, revealing two large stone burial mound monuments
known as the Dnmitns tomb and Sirenns tomb, and over
15 cremated corpses buried in pits. Among the funerary offerings deposited here were Iberian ceramics,
imported ceramics dated between the 5th and 1st centuries BC, metal objects, glass matrix objects, terracottas, and calcified bones, evidence of cremation. A
funerary monument corresponding to the oldest phase
of this necropolis, between the 6th-5th centuries se,
has been reconstructed as a pillar1stele thanks to the
sculpted remains used in tumulus structures dating
from a later phase, between the 3rd-2nd centuries se.
The elements forming part of the pillar/stele-type
monument from the Corral de Saus are: stepped base,
113
[page-n-114]
PREHISTORY MUSEUM
square püla r, cyma with scotia and beading, topped
with a zoomorphic sculpture on a pedestal, measuring
between 2 and 3 metres in height. These monuments,
dating from the 6th-4th centuries BC, are known from
necropolises in Pozo Moro in Chinchilla (Albacete);
Monfo.rte del Cid (Alicante); a nd Coimbra del Barranco A ncho and El Prado in Jumilla, Fuentecica del
Tío Garrulo in Coy-Lorca, Los Nietos in Cartagena,
and El Ggarralejo in Mula (all in Murcia province).
Excavations in the necropolis of Las Peñas (Zarra,
Valle de Cofrentes) ha ve provided a total of 20 incinerations dating from the 6th-4th centuries BC. The
majority of these tombs were simple pits dug in the
ground, either circular or rectangular, with a !ayer of
s tone Lining the base or one of the sides. Only four of
the tombs were constructed using stone waU tedlniques, similar toa cist or a full stone lining. Except in
two cases, the pits contained a cinerary urn holding the
calcified bones a nd remains of the deceased a nd
sometimes a small metal object. All other household
goods or adornments employed as offerings, such as
arms, vases or necklace beads, were placed around the
urn and the whole ensemble was usually covered with
the ashes and carbons left over from incineration.
The presence of weapons is common in funeral
offerings, as observed at the necropolis of Casa de
Monte (Valdeganga, Albacete prov.). This confirms the
importance of warrior ideologies sustained by the
higher levels of society. This is also observable in
combat scenes shown in paintings on vases from El
Tossal de Sant Miquel in Lliria or from La Serreta in
Alcoi, evidencing a military hierarchy: riders with
spurs and plumed helmets seem to be directing the
infantry equipped with cuirasses, simple helmets and
s hields either rottnd (cnefrn) or elongated (scutum). The
arms borne by the riders are usually the soliferreum, a n
iron lan ce in one s ingle piece, or the pif11111, a wooden
s haft shod with an iron ferrule and point. The horses
wear headba nds and propitiatory bells. The uúantry
soldiers combat with fnlcntns, single-edged swords
with protected hilts, or s traight, double-ed ged swords
with antennae hilts.
One of the best documented funerary discoveries in
recent years are the child burials in fberian houses,
such as those found at Castellet de Bernabé (Llíria,
Camp de Túria district). Both newborns and babies
only a few months old are thought not to have shared
in the customary fun erary traditions and sites reserved
for adul ts. They were not incinerated or buried in cemeteries, but rather incarcerated under the floors of
T
be.rian houses. These customs lead researchers to beIieve that there were strict rites of passage according to
age, and only the fulfilment of these enabled the deceased to become honoured as full members of society.
ln sorne cases there is evidence suggesting that these
child burials were home-founding or home abandonment sacrifices.
ln addition to evidence from necropolises, the religious life of the fberians is manifested in specific places
of worship. From remate prehis toric times there seem
to be telluric beliefs, ie, associated with the earth itself,
whose continuance in the Iberian epoch can be úúerred
from deposits reguJarly made in certain caves. These
cave sanctuaries ha ve provided collections of materials
such as numerous calkiform vases and dishes used as
lamps or recipients for libations, sud1 as those found in
Cueva del Puntal del Horno Ciego (Villargordo del
CabrieJ, La Plana de Utiel).
Sanctuaries were often far removed from villages
and towns, and were associated with collective cults
which w ere possibly dedicated to reinforcing tribal
identity. Terracotta ex-votos were ofte n deposited at
these sites, such as those found at La Serreta in Alcoi,
or the stone and bronze objects representing worshippers or animals found at Cigarrelejo de Lua (Murcia
prov.) or Despeña perros Oaén prov.). The temples of La
llleta dels Banyets in Campello, of El Tossal de Sant
Miguel in Llíria, or of L' Alcúdia in Elx show signs of
the complex nature of Iberia n religion as well as thc
existence of household chapels inside villages.
C>
Sculpted female head in limestone belonging lo a fu nerary monument
from thc lberia n necropolis of Corr~ l de Saus (Moixent).
Sth·4th C oc. Height 20.4cm.
114
[page-n-115]
[page-n-116]
Siren's body in limestone from a funerary monumcnt at the lberian necropolis of Corra l de Saus.
5th-4th C BC. Length 52.0cm.
116
[page-n-117]
Lady of the Corral de Saus. Sculpted limestone female
figures used as <~rdtitectural elemen ts form ing pi!rt
of a ftmerary monument at the necropolis.
5th-4th C llC. Height 60.2cm.
117
[page-n-118]
Calciform jar decoralcd
with a bird wilh outslrelched wings
from lhe Corral de Saus necropolis.
2nd C BC. Hcight 13Acm.
Malerials from lhe lberian
nt. cropolis of Las Peñ11s (Zarra).
>
"Urnas de orejetas", faiCilta and iron
sword, bronze clasps. 6th e llC.
Hc ig ht of lnllesl urn 18.1cm.
11 8
[page-n-119]
Falcata and double-headed
sword in iron from the lberian
necropolis of Casa del Monte
(Valdeganga, Albacete prov.).
6th C BC. lengths 56.3 and 50.2cm.
119
[page-n-120]
[page-n-121]
<1
Jar or albarello, decorated with geometric
and floral molifs from El TossaJ
de Sant Miqucl. End of 3rd C
and beginning of 2nd C BC.
Height 25.0cm.
Room VI is dedicntetf lo lile /berim1 forlress lown nud ils
surroumliug lerrilory. El Tossnl tfe Slml Miquel iu Llrrin, nucieu/ Edeln lo
lile lberinus, is nu exnmple of n lnrge-scole si/e, from whic/1 there is n ric/1 collecliou of Tberinu
cernmics wi/11 pniuled figurnlh>e themes, suc/1 ns lile Vns tfels Guerrers, /he 'Wnrriors Vnsé. Edetn
was lhe cnpilnl of subslnulinlterritory subdivitfed iulo vrrrious cntegories of selllemeuts: villnges,
suc/1 ns Ln Seiin iu Villnr del Arzobispo, Moumvrrnn iu Llfrin; eslnles suc/1 ns Cnstellel de Bemnbé
in Llírin, whic/1 is showu iu n sen/e model iu nddilioulo coutributiug nrlicles; nud forlresses, suc/1
ns El Puulnl deis Llops iu Olocnu. This is n/1 explninetf 011 n lnrge iulernclil!t' model silowiug the
en tire modem-tfny Cnmp de T1irin districl with ndditiounl help from nu nudiovisunl.
VI. EL TOSSAL DE SANT MIQUEL:
THE CITY OF EDETA ANO ITS ENVIRONS
El Tossal de Sant Miquel (Li lria, Camp de Túria
dístrict) was excavated between the years 1933 and
1953, and is well-known for its collection of decorated
vases, with scripts accompanying many objects. In fact,
this site has provided the largest register of lberian
epigraphics on the peninsula. The Iberian regional capital, identifíed as Edetn by the Roman geographer Strabus, occupied a total of 10 hectares at its time of maximum splendour, between the 4th and 2nd C se, surrounding the entire hill. lt has a layout whlch is typical
of hillside settlements, with buildings backed against
the slope faci ng outwards in a series of artificial terraces
over whlch the streets ran. The terracing of the slope
was accentuated by the fact that houses had multiple
stories and flat roofs. In the 2nd e oc, following the
Roman conquest, the town was set aflame and destroyed, and for the rest of the century and the following
it gradualJy fell into disuse and was abandoned. As of
the 1st e AD the Roman city, constructed in the area
known as the Pla de 1'Are, grew to reach a new age of
splendour.
Oecorated Iberian vases can be grouped into two
very different pictorial styles depending on local geography and chronology: the Llíria-Oliva narratíve style,
with figurative scenes composed in friezes and often
accompanied by written texts, datíng from the end of
the 3rd e BC; and the Elx-Archena symbolic style, characterized by isolated images and illustratíons of mythologícal beings on central panels, dating from the 2nd-1st
e BC. In prestíge works of this kind, whlch usualJy seem
to have been commissioned, the role of the specialized
painter stands out from that of the potter. The subdivision of work among potters and painters, with commissions corning from above, confirms that lberian society was a hierarchy in whlch artísans and workshops
served the ruling urban classes.
121
[page-n-122]
PREHISTORY MUSEUM
The scenes painted on ceramics from Edetn, composed on friezes and always showing a variety of characters, reflect specific activities belonging to the aristocratic leve! of society. They show Jeisure pursuits such as
hunting and competitive games, and military feats, battles and duels, indicating the social importance of the
high-ranking warrior. Seated ladies, processions and
dances reflect well-establíshed festivities and religious
activities in ceremonies in which women always took
part, and judging by their garments and attributes, they
represented high-ranking ladies. Scenes depicted on
ceramic wares therefore show the urban world of U1e
privileged classes at ilie end of the 3rd e and beginning
of the 2nd C BC, immortalized by specialized artisans
and artists rendering services to the privileged. The lower leve! of society was made up of farmers, who worked
in the cow1try and villages surrow1ding the regional
capitals, and were never reflected ü1 Iberian iconography.
Recent research at Edetn-Llíria shows tl1at tlus city
played a role as capital of an extensive and well-defined
territory between the Sierra Calderona to the north, the
Turia river to the south, the Mediterranean coast to the
east and the mountainous Serranía zone to tl1e west.
Tlus predominance began around the year 400 BC, when
the population began to occupy four types of settlements: hamlets and villages located in farming areas,
both of which provided basic foodstuffs, fortresses
manned to defend fue territory, and finally, the capital
city of Edeta, the seat of government and tl1e major marketplace for products grown and traded in the region.
Harnlets and villages were the centres for agricultura! production in Edetan territory. Measurü1g almost
one hectare in size, Monravana near Llíria, Torreseca
near Casinos and La Seña near Villar del Arzobispo
were villages peopled with farmers occupied in supplying the city with food. Hamlets such as Castellet de
Bernabé near Llíria, were areas of about 1,000m2 in size
where it can be supposed that the landowner orgru.lized
work in the immediate vicüuty. The locations of these
small settlements near the most fertile terrains, and the
presence of structures used for processing agricultura]
products, such as winepresses and oil mills, indicate
their use for agricultura! purposes. Carpological sru.nples confirm that multiple crops were produced in the
122
usual Mediterranean tripartite rnanner: cereals, olives
ru.1d grapevines. Livestock associated with these dryland crops were rnainly sheep ru.1d goats, with a predominance of the latter. Deer, wild boar and mountain
goat hw1ting not only served to complement the diet,
but was obviously a leisure pursuit of the ntling classes.
La Seña (Villar del Arzobispo, La Serranía district)
was a walled village measuring sorne 8,000rn2 located on
flat lands. Excavations have tmearilied a winepress, a
section of houses backed agail1st the main walls and a
stratigraphic sequence dating from the 6th to the 2nd e
BC. The village of Monravana (Llíria, Carnp de Túria
district), measurü1g approximately 6,000m2, still
conserves its walled enclosure and housing sector
within the interior. In addition to houses, tl1e northernmost area contained two oilpresses and flour milling
facilities. The mills and presses in fuese two villages
confirm without any doubt the importance of winemaking ru.1d oil extraction befare ilie arrival of the
Romru.1s.
El Castellet de Bernabé (Llíria, Camp de Túria
district) is a hamlet of sorne 1,000m2 located at tl1e foot
of the Tres Pies fortress, on the spurs of the Sierra
Calderona. Built at the begimüng of the 4th C BC, it
seems to ha ve been violently destroyed at the start of the
2nd e BC. The layout was simple: one central lru.le
separated two distinct areas: a large house with a
hallway and five rooms where the owner and lus family
probably lived, and a series of smaller constmctions
with comparh11ents for storing products, milling cereals,
a blacksmith's or ironworks andan oilpress, all of which
had two storeys. The blacksmith's was a single
grow1dfloor room with a workbench strewn with iron
refuse and a number of pieces of slag from a forge,
reflecting ample ironworking activities in the settlement, whlcl1 also provided evidence of a lead fotmdry,
with a fumace, woodpile, a stone used asan anvil anda
crude pot for melting lead.
Around the year 400 se the regional capital of Edeta
was provided with a network of forts to protect its
frontiers. These were built in the form of small-scale
settlements, from 500 to 4,000m2 in size, with walls and
at least one tower, located in prominent positions which
[page-n-123]
Fragmenls of an Attic lekythos
with black figures from
El Tossal de Sant Miquel.
About 500 years ec. Length of
l;ugest fr¡¡gment ll .lcm.
were difficult to access, while commanding a wide view
over the surrounding land. They were sited on the
natural gateways to the routes leading into the eamp de
Túria district from the PaHmcia valley and the Serranía
district, as weU as along the Turia river. They were al!
within sight of each other and of thc headquarters in
Edetn, enabling the.m to communicate in the event of
danger. This defensive network, the symbol of Edetan
power, was dismantled at the beginning of the 2nd e BC,
when the Roman domi11ation had begw1 to be effective.
El Puntal dels Llops (Olocau, eamp de Túria
district) is one of the fortresses or lookout towers
belonging to this network, little more than 600m2 in size,
and located at a strategic point commanding a view
over the eamp de Túria district and the natural pass
through the earraixet ravine. lt is bordered by a d efensive waU from whose northern face a square-based
watchtower rises. Within the walls, seventeen compartments are distributed on either side of a narrowish
central street. The grow1dfloor underwent no modifications since its initial construction at the end of the 5th e
IK until the beginning of the 2nd e BC. A study of the
articles found in each of the compartments reveals that
complementary activities were carried out in each, and
the entire settlement can be considered as an outpost
whose major concern was the defence and control of the
outlying territory.
123
[page-n-124]
"Vase of the Warriors". A lebes decorated with a procession of infantrymen
and riders from El Tossal de Sant Miquel.
Between the end of the 3rd e and the beginning of the 2nd e oc. Height 42.6cm.
124
[page-n-125]
Lampbase-sh¡¡ped ceramic
guitas from El Toss11l
de Sélnt Miquel.
Oil o r perfume holder.
Early 2nd e uc. Maximum
diameler ll.Ocm.
Kala lhos or "top hat" jar, decorated
with scenes of dancers and
musicians, from El Tossal de Sm1t
Miquel. Between lhe end of the 3rd
e and the beginning of the 2nd e uc.
1Jeight 14.0cm.
125
[page-n-126]
ehild burial in an urn fotmd under the noor of a
house in the eastellet de Bernabé settlement (Liíria).
4th e oc. Urn diameter 31.2cm.
Black-va rnished, foot-shaped ceramic
guttas from the Puntal dels Llops
settlement. Oil or perfume holder.
3rd e oc. Length 16.0cm.
126
[page-n-127]
lberian ceramic wares with painted decorations, characteristic of Camp de Túria
settle me nts (Pun tal deis Llops, Castellet de Bernabé and El Tossal de Sant Miquell.
3rd-2nd C BC. Height of tallest piece 33.2cm.
127
[page-n-128]
.,
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,., .
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[page-n-129]
Funerary stela stone with
lberian inscription, from
Si narcas. 1st C oc.
Height 78.3an .
Room Vfl co111ni11s n collectio11 of Tberin11 objects benri11g
writi11g nnd grnphics, comprisiug iucised lend fnblets from Ln Bnstidn de les
Alwses iu Moixenf, El Tossnl de Sn111 Miquel i11 Llfrin, Los Villm·es i11 Cnudete de lns Fue11tes,
nud Pico de los Ajos i11 Yátovn, nmoug olhers; bro11ze objects benriug writi11g from Sn11l Autoui
de Betxf, texts 011 cernmics fro m El Tossnl de Snut Miquel i11 L/b·in, gmffili 011 cernmics imported
fro m Tossnl de In Cnln i11 Beuidorm, 1111 iucised boue from Ln Pelin de lns Mnjndns i11 El Toro, nud
tl1e ftmernry stele from Siunrcns, nmoug other objects.
VII. IBERIAN WRITING
Iberian is a pre-Tndo-European language grouped
amongst Mediterranean linguistic variants, showing
certain similarities and parentage with the Berber,
SaJ"dinian a11d Etruscan languages, ru1d with today's
Basque, which is the only pre-Indo-Europeru1 language
still spoken on the Iberian península. The first signs of
language being written in this region date from the 4th
century se. The symbols used in lberiru1 writing are
derived from the eastern Mediterranean, from the
Phoenician-Greek alphabet, adapted to the phonetic
values of the Iberian language, resulting in what was
originally a semi-syllabic alphabet. Our ignorance of the
language spoken by the Iberians prevents us from
translating their texts, but some proper 11ames, potter's
marks and property signs are known.
Most documents appear to ha ve been written in one
of three dilferent alphabets: the Southern alphabet,
ranging across eastern Andalusia, the region of the
present-day provinces of Albacete, Murcia ru1d Alicru1te;
the Eastern alphabet, extending along the coastal p lains;
and the lOiúc alphabet, linúted to the district arotmd
Alcoi westwards to the Alicante coast.
Our most useful sources of information are lead
tablets wlúch ha ve never been translated, but appear to
be lists of figures, ie, they are probably administrative
files of accounts. At presentas many as forty lead tablets
have been docwnented; of note among these are the
series found at settlements such as La Serreta in Alcoi,
Punta d'Orleyl in Vall d'Uixó, Los Vi.llru·es in Caudete de
las Fuentes, La Bastida de les Alcuses in Moixent, or
Pico de los Ajos i11 Yátova.
The narrative form of Iberiru1 writing seems to have
appeared towards tl1e end of the 3rd century BC, when
the same artists who painted figmines on their ceranúc
wares present explanations of the events tl1ey depict by
writi11g dedications or by sig:túng their works. Tlús
eminently urban style of craftsmanslúp enables us to
associate the rise of writing with tl1e development of the
city and the urban aristocracy.
129
[page-n-130]
Lead sheet inscribed with letters o( the
easlern lberian alphabet, found
at the Pico de los Ajos seulemen t (Yá tova).
4th C BC. length 18.8cm.
130
[page-n-131]
Lead sheet inscribed with letters of the
eastern lberian alphabet, found at the
Pico de los Ajos settlement (Yátova).
4th e oc. Length 18.8cm.
lberian text from GUDUR DEISDEA
with painted battle scenes on a vase
from El Tossal de Sant Miquel.
Between the end of the 3rd e a nd the
beginning of the 2nd e BC
131
[page-n-132]
[page-n-133]
Small treasure horde found
at the Los Vi llares Jberian
settlement. Bronze and
sil ver coins, gold ring and
sil ver earrings in a ceramic
jar. Between the end of the
3rd e and the begimling of
the 2nd e oc.
1-le ight of jar 7.8cm.
Room V11I is tfeuotetf lo Tberiaulllllllismnfics, witll n display
o protfucls f rom four Vnleucin11 mi11tiug centres: Arse-Sng1111fum, Sailif
Xiltivn, Keli11-Los Vi/lares n11tf Kili. 111 atftfitio11, a 1111111l1er of otller obj ecls relnletf lo trntfi11g
acliuilies are show11, plus lile cnc/1e of Los Villnres i11 Cnutfete de lns Fue11tes, Íllclutfi11g 1111
Ampurinu tfrnc/mm, Cnrtllngi11inll coi11 aurl n sampli11g of lberinu coiu f rom vnrious mi11ts nrouutf
lile Peuiusuln.
VIII. IBERIAN COINS
Around 600 years befare the bírth of Christ,
coinage was first made on the Turkish coast of the
Aegean sea, but it took two anda half centuries for it
to be minted in sorne of the settlements on the Iberian
península. Coins were simply another form of
exchange, but they were eventually to become more
important than all others. During the 5th to the 3rd
centuries BC there is evidence in Iberian settlements
of coinage minted in Syracuse, Messana, MassaJia
and Emporion. At this time, coins played a subordinate or practically insignificant role in exchanges,
as barter or gross metal were t11e predominant means
of exchange.
The frrst coins m:inted in t11e Valencian region
carne from Arse (Sagunt) during the second hall of
the 3rd century se. A little la ter coins were minted in
Saitabi (Xativa). As of the 2nd century se workshops
in the towns of Kelin (Los Villal'es in Caudete de las
Fuentes) and Kili (unidentified with a specific
settlement to date) carne into existence. The Second
Punic War between Romans and Carthaginians
served as the cause of a substantial expansion of the
use of coins in the region. What seems to have been
an enormous quantity of coinage was put into
circulation as payment of war costs, and as wages
(stipendium) paid to mercenaries. Arse and Saitnbi
were the centres of important issues of coin, with
high production levels in the 2nd and 1st centuries
se . Both made silver coins, although Valencian mints
with the exception of Arse were mostly involved in
producing bronze coins called ases and divisores, ie,
money used in small transactions. Pl'll'allel to these
mintings from Iberian production centres came three
issues of bronze coin froro tl1e newly founded Roman
city of valiant soldier veterans called Valen tia.
133
[page-n-134]
Amptuian fractional coins from El Collado de la
Cova del Cava JI (Liíria). Face and back. 4th C BC.
Weight O.Sgr, diam. 1.1cm. Photo Garcia Rosell.
In the Iberian world, coins were accepted far
beyond the territory in which they were originally
issued, being used as currency in many different
centres of population. During the 2nd and 1st
centuries BC the Iberian people in the region of
Valencia used coins from a wide variety of minting
centres. Bronze coins made in Valencian towns
134
possibly comprised as muchas one half of the money
supply, with the remainder coming from Rome and
other Iberian cities such as Cástufo, lknfeskett, Bofsknn
and Ke/se. The need for silver coin was covered i11
part by production at Arse, but mostly by coi11
brought from Rome and other ntints on the
península.
[page-n-135]
Drachma from Arse (Sagunt)
Face and back. End of 3rd e BC. Weigh t 3.4gr,
diam. 1.7cm.
Bilingual As from Saiti-Saetabi (Xiltiva)
Face and back. M id-1s t e BC. Weight 16gr,
diam. 2.8cm.
Monetary unit from Kili (mint u nlocated as
yet, but probably in the interior of Valencia
province). Face ¡md back. Mid -2nd e llC.
Weight 11.7gr, diam. 2.5cm.
Monetary unit from Kelin {Los Villa res). Face
and back. Mid -2nd e BC.
Weight 9.4gr, diam. 2.7cm.
135
[page-n-136]
f\
......
..,..,
• ,,
:¡
t
•
[page-n-137]
Sculpted marble female
form found al Valencia la
Vclla (Riba-roja de Túria).
2nd -3rd C AD.
Height 30.0cm.
/~00111 IX correspo11ds lo tire l
ln11ds toere romn11ized, witlr a specinl focus 011 certni11 exceptio11nl nrclreologicnl siles s11dr ns
Edetn-Ufrin, l.n Prmln de 1'11/n i11 Cul/ern mrd El Pln de Nndnl i11 Ribn-rojn, tire In/ter two pertni11i11g lo Jire e11d of tire period. A111o11g tire mnlerinls of 110/e nre Romn11 cemmics mrd bronzes
frolll vnrious sites, n11d iu pnrtic11lnr, a bro11ze stnl11e of Apol/o fouud al Piuedo.
IX. THE ROMAN EPOCH
For Iberian folk, the process of romanization involved eating, drinking, dressing, building houses and
burning funeral pyres as the Romans did. This new way
of life, ranging from the production of goods for commercial purposes, to speaking Latin, celebrating Roman
feasts and worshipping Roman deities, and organizing
political and administrative powers following the Roman legal system, began quite early in the coastal regions of Valencia. As of the 3rd century BC commercial
contacts were maintained with Italy and Sicily. Between
219 and 202 BC it is known that Sngttnflllll was won over
to the Roman side in the Second Punic War. In the aftermath, ruined areas were restored in Roman style, with
the incorporation of Roman-type buildings. If fact,
Sngunt11m became a symbol of friendship and fidelity
for the Romans. In 138 BC the founding of Vnlentin south
of Snguntum reinforced Roman influence over the local
fberian population. After this, the farming of coastal
lands, with organized irrigation and the improvement
of land and sea links, contributed toan increase in living
standards among the popu lation spread a long the coast.
Cities, of course, were the centrepoints for the
organization of Roman municipal areas (territorium
ttrbis). Valencia's economic and strategic distribution
had already been organized in preceding centuries by
the fberians. This geographical phenomenon was described by Pliny as a Regio.
In the Regio of Valencia we know of the existence of
eight Roman cities: Lesera, a city founded during the
HJgh Empire, is identified with a settlement at Moleta
deis Frares, in the hinterlands near Forcall; Saguntum, a
federated city since the Second Punic War until in
Augustus' day it became a t111111icipium of Roman
137
[page-n-138]
PREHISTORY MUSEUM
dtizens; Edeta, a Jmtnicipium under Latin law, at the site
of what is now the town of Llíria; Valentia, a Latín
colony founded in 138 se and later re-populated under
Augustus with soldiers licenced from the Roman army,
explaining the mention made in inscriptions in two
ordines: Vnlentini veternni et veteres; Saitabi, a municipium under Latín law in the epoch of Augustus, is the
present-day town of Xativa, then famous, according to
Pliny, for its fabulous linen goods; Dianium, the Roman
city of Dénia, also deserved a mention by Pliny as a
stípendiwn-payer wlúch only la ter rose to the rank of a
municipiwn¡ Lucentumhas been identified as the Roman
municipimn built at Tossal de Manises near Alicante;
lastly, Ilici, is recogtúzed as the Roman colony fow1ded
at Elx by Caesar or Augustus.
For the Romans, territorium was a juridical concept
subject to fiscalization and the authority of a magistrate,
in addition to being a geographical notion. The centrepoint was the city itself, whlch controlled the surrounding territory of farm and pasturelands, and the population of the territory was structured into groups of varying size, each of which comprised production units for
farming and fishing which were usually called villne
rusticne. Water was captured and chatmelled to cities in
large-scale hydraulic engineering feats, of which sorne
are still standing today. Aqueducts such as that of Peña
Cortada (Calles-Chelva, la Serranía district), subterranean channels and other achievements enabled Roroan engineers to bridge geographical accidents and
keep the Latín waters flowing smoothly.
Founded in 138 se, Valentía ranks as the first fully
Roman city founded in the region of Valencia, and one
of the first in Hispania, as the península was known by
Roman geographers. Since its beginning, it was an important urban nucleus, with thermal baths, a forum,
defensive walls, and public buildings. It minted its own
coin on which the Latin alphabet was used. The city was
destroyed by Pompey in 75 se, and was reborn in the 1st
century AD to become, along with flici, one of the only
two Roman colonies located in the Valencian region.
Prívate homes often seem to have had a luxurious aspect. An extensive cemetery was located in the southeastern section of the city (present-day Central Market),
and along the stretch of the main southern road out of
138
the city, the Augustus Road, (calle San Vicente Mártir).
One curious fact, extant in very few cities of the Empire,
is that citizens were divided into two groups, the
veternni and the veteres, a division that corresponded to
two different times of repopulation.
The Pinedo Ap ollo was found in the waters off
Pinedo beach on December 8th 1963. Four divers discovered the sculpture of a recfuúng nude youth identified as the god Apollo, son of Zeus and Leto, and therefore one of the major deities in the Olympian pantheon.
The final destínation of the sculpture has never been.discovered, as it was probably on board a ship that
wrecked off the coast. It may have been i.ntended for a
religious or civic building, or been commissioned for an
ttrban or rustic villa. Judging from its similarity with
other sculptures, the Pinedo A pollo is probably from the
Imperial epoch.
Civitas Edetanorum, present-day Llíria, was a city
under Latín law located around the lúll known as El
Tossal de Sant Miquel. Its name conserves that of the ancient lberian capital. lt is therefore an example of the
transfer of the population from the slopes of the lúll to
the area around its skirts on flatter land. A two-building
public thermal complex in the proximity of a temple invites speculation on the religious and salutary functions
of tlús area near Romanized Edeta, perhaps coinciding
with a temple to the Nymphs. One section of the road
whlch seems to have been bordered by tombs indicates
that it had adopted the usual layout of necropolises typical of Roman urban conglomerations. And the discovery
of a number of wells choked with ceramic tableware and
kitchenware seems to evidence sorne sort of Roman ritual. To all appearances, Edeta was a flourishing city
between the age of the Flavians a.nd the 5th century AD.
Literature tells us of the social consequence of certain
personages having been born in Edetn. Near the end of
the 1st century AD, Marcus Valerius Propinquo Grattio
Cerealis became the Flnmen of the Hispanic Citerior province, and Marcus Cornelius Curatio Nigrino Materno
t>
Pinedo Apollo. Bronze Roman statue found off the Valencia coast
at Pinedo. Copy of Hellenistic
model dated between the 1st e and
the first half of the 2nd C AD.
Height 145.0cm.
[page-n-139]
[page-n-140]
f-lispanic terra sigillata bowl, and common Roman
'
jar and stirrup vases (rom Pl Between the end of the 1st and the middle
o( the 2nd e AD. lleight o( tallest piece 10.5cm.
e
Small bronze figurine possibly
representing éUl Eros, from the funerary
monuments o( Edeta (Liíria).
1st-2nd CAD.
Height 16.2cm.
140
[page-n-141]
ltalian terra sigillata bowl from
Arezzo, found at
Empúries (Girona).
End of 1st C AD. Mouth
diam. 15.0cm.
achieved promotions to successive posts as procurator
to become one of the highest ranking procurators in
Roman politics.
Ceramics were the materials most frequently used
by Romans in their daily üves. In addition to table jars
made in fine metals, there were well-made ceramic jars
whkh are known as terra sigillata, a name they were
given because of the manufacturer's stamp, or sigillum,
inscribed on the bottom of the inside surface. Occasionally, these were decorated with moulded motifs
in relief. These jars were produccd in large pottery
workshops and were marketed throughout the Empire.
During the entire Imperial Age, production centres of
these jars varied, and in consequence, so did theu·
technical and decorative features.
Apart from the jars used at the table, the Romans
made other ceramic recipients and objects to contain,
prepare or cook food. Because of the use they were put
to, they were mainly lacking in decoration and quality
finishes. There were normaUy made in places clase to
consumer centres, in order to keep costs to a mínimum.
ln the region of Valencia, a number of kilns where these
goods were fired have been discovered.
The Roman monetary system was a tri-metallic system (gold, silver and copper) with a fixed correspon-
dence between al! coins, which !asted w1til the 3rd
century AD: 1 aureus = 25 denarü = 100 sesterce = 200
dupondii = 400 asses = 800 semes = 1600 quadrantes.
The fundamental characteristic of a Ucoins in the Roman
world was the use of the Emperor's portrait, which was
the most powerfuJ symbol of authority, present in aU
economic transactions throughout the Empire. The
quality of these coins (weight and alloys) and the size of
the issue varied over time in accordance with the needs
of the state, which eventually attempted to produce
more coins with the same limited amount of metal,
leading to inflation. The progressive increase in prices
brought about the elimination of cou1s of smaller
denomination, making sesterce and dupondü the
commonest coins in the 2nd century a11d the first half of
the 3rd century se.
Throughout al! Hispania supplies of bronze ran out
during the second half of the 1st century se, in answer
to which colonies and municipia began minting their
own coins in bronze. !J1 the Valencian region, only the
citics of Ilíci (colony) and Sagunfw11 (mwúcipium) had
their own mints, but production levels were low,
insufficient to cover the needs of a growing urbru1 population. Following the reign of Caligula, cities Íl1
Hispania stopped producillg coin. As of this time, al!
141
[page-n-142]
1>
Statera or Roman sea le in
bronze from
Vélez Blanco (Almería).
Length 34.3cm.
Roman lanterns from Empúries. 1st-3rd C
Diam. of largest piece 8.9cm.
provinces in· the western Mediterranean had a unified
monetary system, as aU coins in circulation carne from
Imperial mints. In the middle of the 3rd century there
was a progressive deterioration of the Roman monetary
system, wlúch never again experienced the stability of
the preceding centuries.
Roman society w1derwent a slow but progressive
transformation during the last few centuries of the
Empire. Following the division of the Empire by
Theodosius in the year 395 AD, the disintegration of the
western Empire in 476 brought a new political and
organizational reality. The creation of the German kingdoms in western Europe (Valencia became part of the
Visigoth realm), however, did not bring an end to the
historical tradition and the values of Roman society
tmdcr the Lower Empire.
During this period Christianity and the Church
played a predominant role in the political and ideoIogical Ufe of society, completely displacing the pagan
deities of the 4th century and replacing the Imperial
political system in U1e 5th. In major cities, where urban
life had remained active, episcopal centres began to
exercise real control over the territory, intimately linked
as they were with the new civil powers.
La Punta de l' llia (Cuila, la Ribera Baixa district)
was cxcavated in the years 1955, 1957 and 1966. Documented remains include a series of defensive waUs, a
religious building and three comparh11ents devoted to
storage space. Ancient texts, cluonology and the reli-
142
AO.
gious dtaracter of U1e materials found here make it
reasonable to suppose Utat this was the site where the
bishop Justinian commanded a monastery to be built in
memory of the arrival of St Vicente the Martyr's body.
Among the notable materials found at La Punta de l'illa
are amphoras, recipients fuU of oil from Africa and
Syria, and wine from oriental markets such as Palestine
and the lands around the Black Sea. The settlement was
abandoned arow1d the middle of the 6th century or
somewhat later.
El Pla de Nadal (Riba-roja de Túria, el Camp de
T úria district) contains a building from U1e days of the
Visigoths wlúch is one of the most wúque finds in
Valencian archaeology in recent years. It is a civil building built in the 7th century that must ha ve been a nobleman's home, to judge from its proportions. It is the
oldest building to use the horseshoe arch in the region
of Valencia. The construction is presided by a central
nave wlúch is accessed through a small portal wiU1 four
buth-esses on eacl1 side. Tlús bay is flanked by two
angular towers. FundamentaUy, the building stiU preserves its southernmost fac;ade, as the rest was destroyed due to the transformation of the terrain into
arable cropland. At this settlement over 800 architectural items have been found, the majority of wlúch
are decorated with bevelled-edged relief work showing
a tlueefold U1eme: plant vol u tes, tri folia or lotus flowers
and scallops.
[page-n-143]
[page-n-144]
Bronze canteen girth
decorated with glass matrix,
from the Belgida area.
2nd-3rd e AD.
Width 6.0cm.
Bronze canteen girth decorated with glass matrix,
from the BeJgida area. 2nd-3rd e AO.
Width 6.0cm.
144
[page-n-145]
Visigoth cera míe bottles
from the Pego area.
6th-7th AD.
Height 25.5cm.
e
f·
l
\
eeramic jar a nd bottle
from Vis igoth burial s ites
in Els Xa rcons (Montserrat)
a nd El Romaní (Sollana).
6th-7th AD.
Bottle height 26.Scm.
e
145
[page-n-146]
Bronze Visigoth cross
from Punta de I' Ula (eullera).
6th e AD. Height 15.8cm.
Amphora from Palestine found at
Punta d e l' nla. 6th e AO.
Height 42.0cm.
146
[page-n-147]
Visigoth capitnl in Cornithian trndi tion,
from Pla d e Nndnl ( Riba -roja de T(trin).
7th C AD. llcighl 29.0cm.
147
[page-n-148]
[page-n-149]
<1
Dinar from AI-Zahir, coined
at al-Mansuriya in the year
417 of the Hegira (1026-27).
Fro m the Las Suertes
treasure (Sinarcas).
Weig ht 4.03gr., diam. 2.4cm.
Room X slrows a smnll c:oiu c:ollecliou dnliug from nfler tire
Romn11 nge. lf i11cludes ene/res formd in n wide ooriely of siles, suclr as
0/ioo, Si~tnrcns, Mo~tforle, Be11ijnir6 de In Vnlldig11n, Vnle11cin, Requeun or Xtllioo. 11re coins
correspo11d lo tire Moorislr, Clrristin11 nnd modem nges, nnd lrnve bee11 left 011 permn11e11t deposit
al tire Museum.
X. NUMISMATICS:
VALENCIAN FINDS IN THE 10TH-11TH CENTURIES
People accumulated wealth in a number of forms.
Among these, coins minted in gold, silver, bronze and
copper were a sign of pertaining to the more well-todo social classes. Before the creation of banks, the
easiest way to store money was to bury it or keep it in
a safe hiding place. Sorne coin collections set aside for
special uses, or perhaps as a financia! fund for the
future, were never recovered by the owners. Surfacing
much Iater in time, they can now be called treasure
hordes or caches, sometimes containing valuable coins
and objects. Occasionally, treasure hordes contained
very valuable coins purposely safeguarded by the
owners, whereas at others there were simple collections of frequently used coins, such as the petty
cash box used ata tavern.
During the Visigoth reign the monetary system was
somewhat lop-sided, with an emphasis on gold-coins
called triens. These had a high value, as reports affirm
tl1at three gold coins sufficed for a man to feed himself
for an entire year, but this system raises doubts about
the monetization of Visigoth society. The start of the
Andalusian Moorish reign brought about a significant
change in the monetary aspect, bringing back a stable
tri-metallic system which was finally comparable to
that of the Roman High Empire having disappeared
five centuries before.
Valencian Moorish society was fairly well monetized, with gold coins (dinar), silver coins (dirhem)
and coppers (felús). Coin was issued by the rulers to
finance war expenses, administration, municipal
buildings, etc. and when it finally got to the hands of
the farmers, who sold their produce in exchange for
money, it was then reincorporated to the state via tax
collection, closing the circle in which coins were an
instrument of fiscal control. They were also used in
trade, as shown by the fact that sU coi11s were sornever
times fragmented into smaUer triangles to facilitate
local small-scale exchanges.
149
[page-n-150]
Diner de tem coined in Valencia
in 1247-49 under Jaime l.
From !he treasure of Lhe Moorish Queen
(Ben ifairó de la Valldigna).
Face and back.
Weighl 0.71gr.. diam. I.Scm.
Ph01o: A lcálllara.
Diner de tem coined
in Barcelona in 1258 under Jaime l.
Treasure of the Moorish Queen.
Face and back.
Weight 1.04gr., diam. 1.8cm.
Photo: Akilntara.
Diuer coined during
the War of the Gem1anías,
in Xativa in 1521-23. Treasure of Santa
Anna (Xiltiva).
Face and back.
Weight 0.5gr., diam. 1.3cm.
Photo: García Rosell.
S-escudo coin minted under
Fernando VI in Popayiln (Colombia)
in 1758. Requena Treasure.
Face and back.
Weight 27.0gr., d iam. 3.6cm.
150
[page-n-151]
PREHISTORY MUSEUM
The Elca treasure (Oliva, la Safor district) is
composed of dirhams from the age of the Caliphate,
between 933-951 AD. The coins in the Las Suertes
treasure (Sinarcas, la Plana de Utiel-Requena district)
were minted between the years 331-428 of the Hegira,
ie, from 942-1037 in Christian reckoning. The
Monforte treasure (riddle Vinalopó district), stored
away sorne time in the 12th-13th e, is mainly
composed of Almohad dirhams.
In 1247, Jaime I minted U1e first coin belonging
exclusiveJy to U1e Kingdom of Valencia, and it was
called the mi or diner de tem. lt was a copper/silver
coin contairung about 25% of silver with a weight of
approximately one gram. Despite the fact that this
Valencian coin was the only legal tender in the
Kingdom, finds from Utis age (13th-15th C) confirm
that the money actually in use ca me from outside the
realm. As of 1369, gold florins began to be minted in
Valencia, and when King Juan T (1387-1896) inaugurated the minting of silver coins of precise
weight, the mi d'argent, wiili a value of "one wage and
a half" (= 18 diners or mis menuts), this equivalency
was later maintained until the 17th century. The
monetary system in the Kingdom of Valencia was: 1
lliurn (pound) =20 so11s =240 diners =480 mallesfobols,
but only the diners and obols existed as actual coin,
whereas the rest were simply units of measUJ·ement.
The Moorish Queen's treasure (Benifairó de la
Valldigna, la Safor district) was found in ilie so-called
casUe of the "Reina Mora", containing a collection of
copper and silver coins minted by Jaime 1 in Barcelona
and Valencia, which were hidden at the end of the 13th
century. The treasure of Santa Anna (Xativa, la
Costera district) was made up of small-denomination
copper coin with no specia l legends which are supposed to ha ve been minted in Xativa itseJf at the time
of the Germanías revolts under Carlos 1 (1519-22). The
Riba-roja de Túria treasure (el Camp de Túria
district) contains Valencian dinerets, or "small dinars",
many of whlch appear to be falsifications. These were
hidden sometin1e in the second half of the 17th century, as the most modern coins in tlus collection are
attributed toCarlos II (1665-1700).
During ilie 17th century in the Kingdom of Valencia falsifications of diners/menuts seem to have been
widely prevalent. The literature of ilie day attributed
these to the Moriscos (converted Moors), just before
their expulsion from Spain, but the Christians also
made counterfeit coin and continued todo so throughout the century. The dinar or menut was tl1e smallest
denomination coin of all those minted in Valencia, and
falsifications seem to have been made in a variety of
Iocations, as evidenced by finds in numerous caves. Of
all those known to exist today, materials have been
found in the Cova deis Estudiants (Naquera, el Camp
de Turia district), the Soterraña cave (Chella, la Canal
de Navarrés district), and the Cova de 1' Águila
(Picassent, l'Horta district).
The Requena treas ure was found in an old house
belonging to the Ferrer de Plegamans fanUly of Requena and comprises coins worth 8, 4 and 2 escudos,
mjnted on the península and also overseas. ChronoIogically, they cover an ample period, as the oldest
coin is a piece of eight from the days of Ferdinand VI
(r.1746-1759) and the most recent is an 80-real piece
from the reign of Isabella 11 (r.1833-68). They must
have represented the family savings, and provide
information on fue origin of gold coins in circulation in
Valencian lands at the time, enabUng us to appreciate
the value of production and supplies from American
mints.
151
[page-n-152]
1>
Ceremonial kero with polychrome decoration. Central
American Presto-Punto culture between 800-1200.
Height 17.0cm. Photo: Liébana.
In addition to the materials on exhibit in the rooms of
the museum described in this book, the Prehistory
Museum has other notable archaeological collections
which will be placed on display in the future.
[page-n-153]
[page-n-154]
[page-n-155]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
La Labor del Servido de Investigación Prehistórica y s u
Museo. Ann ua l re ports of the Management drawn up
s uccessively by l. BALLESTER (1927 to 1949), D. FLETCHER
(1950 to 1981), E. PLA (1982 to 1986) and B. MARTÍ (sh1ce
1987). ln addition to being included in the Annual Report of
the "Diputación de Valencia" (provincial council), reprmts
are available from 1927 to 1983, except those pertaining to
the years 1955, 1956 and 1957.
B. MARTf: Museo de Prehistorin de In Diputació11 de Valencin.
Vol. l. Valencia, 1992.
L. PERTCOT: "Isidro Ballester Tormo". Archivo de Prehistorin
Levn11tinn, 10, 1952, pp. 9-19.
E. PLA: "Dommgo Fletcher Valls". En Homenaje n Domingo
Fletcher Valls. Valencia, 1984.
M. SÁNCHEZ: El Museo de Prel1istorin. Valencia, 1980.
Actividades d e la S.I.P. Review of excavations and
explorations undertaken by the Prehistory Research Service
from 1929 to 1970, compiled by E. PLA in volumes of
Archivo de Prehistorin Levnutiun, ll, from 1946; Vl, fro m
1957; IX, from 1961; XI, from 1966; a nd Xlll, from1972.
J. ALCÁCER: Cntálogo de In Colección Federico de Motos eu el
Museo de Prehistorin de Vnleucin. Various works by the S.I.P.,
43. Valencia, 1972.
H. BONET, M.M. LLORENS y M.J. DE PEDRO: Uu Segle
d' Arqueologin Vnleucinnn. Valencia, 1991.
E. TORMO Y MONZÓ: Valencin: los Museos. Gufas-Cntálogo.
Valencia, 1932.
For fur ther information o n studies on Valencian
Prehistory and Archaeology, consult the various volumes of
Repertorio de Bibliografía Arqueológica Valenciana. Vols.
1a V y VIl a X por D. FLETCHER y E. PLA., con la colaboración de C. SENTANDREU (vol. In) y S.BRU (vol. IV); vol. VI
por R. ENGUIX. En Trabajos Varios del S.l.P. 13, 14, 21, 31, 37,
48, 58 y 74. Valencia; 1951 a 1990.
Catálogo de la Colección Vela (Pre historia Americana).
Valencia, 1964.
D. FLETCHER: Museo de Prehistorin de In Diputnción Provincinl
de Vnlencin. Valencia 1974.
And for general works in collaboration with various
speciaHsts:
D. FLETCHER y E. PLA: El Museo del Servicio de Iuvestigncióu
Prehistórica de In Diputación Provincial de Vnlencin. Zaragoza,
1953.
Aetes de l es Jom ades d' Arqueología d' Altas del Pi.
Conselleria de Cultura de la Generalitat Valenciana.
Valencia, 1995.
D. FLETCHER y E. PLA: Cincuenta mios de actividades del
Servicio de lnvestignción Prehistórica (1927-1977). Trabajos
Arqueología del País Valenciano: Panorama y Perspectivas.
Universidad de Alicante, 1985.
Varios del S.LP., 57. Valencia, 1977.
Historia del Pueblo Valenciano. Vol. l. Valencia, 1988.
B. MARTf: "Enrie Plan Ballester». En Homeunfge n Enrie Pla
Bnllester. Valencia, 1987.
Nuestra His toria. Vol. 1. Va lencia, 1980.
155
[page-n-156]
o
\
•
...
\
\
PALAEOLITHIC AND MESOLITHIC
NEOLITHIC, AENEOLITHIC
BRONZE
6
\
o
\..
'·
IBERIAN
ROMAN, VISIGOTH
•
COIN FINDS
[page-n-157]
ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES IN VALENCIA
HAVING PROVIDED MATERIAL FOR MUSEUM EXHIBITS
•l. Vilafranca
Ereta del Castellar (Bronze)
•2. Alcala de Xivert
La Solivella (Iberian)
• 3. Oropesa
Oropesa la Vella (Bronze)
Submarine find (Roman)
• 4. Almassora
El Boverot (lberian)
• 5. Vila-real
Vil·la Filomena (Aeneolithic)
• 6. Betxí
Sant Antoni (Iberian)
• 7. El Toro
Peña de las Majadas (Iberian)
• 8. Teresa
Pena la Dueña (Bronze)
• 9. Castellnovo
Torre del Mal Paso
(Aeneolithic, Roman)
• lO. La Vall d'Uixó
Punta d'Orleyl (Iberian)
• 11. Andilla
Covacha de Llatas
(Epipalaeolithic)
Castillarejo de los Moros
(Bronze)
12. Villar del Arzobispo
Ptmtal de Cambra (Bronze)
La Seña (lberian)
•13. Castielfabib
Los Santos (Roman)
•14. Sinarcas
Epigraplúc fu1d (lberian)
Las Suertes (Cou1 find,
10th-11th C)
•15. Losa del Obispo
La Atalayuela (Bronze)
•16. Pedralba
Epigraplúc fmd (Roman)
• 17. Casmos
Cab~l de la Casa de Camp
(Bronze)
•18. Llíria
Puntal Sobre la Rambla
Castellarda (Aeneolithic)
El Tossal de Sant Miquel
(Iberian)
Castellet de Bernabé (Iberian)
La Monravana (Iberian)
El Puntalet (Iberian)
Penya Roja (Iberian)
Cova del Cavall (Iberian)
Collado de la Cova del
Cavall (Iberian)
Edeta (Roman)
•19. Benaguasil
Uometa del Tio Figuetes
(Bronze)
• 20. Olocau
Puntal deis Uops (Bronze, Iberian)
La Cargadora (Roman)
• 21. Naquera
Els Trencalls (Bronze)
Cova dels Estudiants
(Com find, 17th-C}
•22. Sagunt
Com núnt of Arse (lberian)
•23. Rafelbunyol
Els Germanells (Bronze)
•24. El Puig
Submarme fmd (Roman)
•25. Paterna
Liorna de Betxí (Bronze)
Despenyaperros (Iberian)
•26. Riba-roja de Túria
Valéncia la Vella (Roman)
Pla de Nada! (Visigoth)
Coin find (17th-C)
• 27. Vilamarxant
El Gargao (Bronze)
• 28. Caudete de las Fuentes
Los Villares (lberian, Roman)
Mint of Kelill (lberian)
• 29. Villargordo del Cabriel
Cueva del Puntal del Horno
Ciego (Iberian)
• 30. Requena
Coin find (18th-19th C)
• 31. 01este
El Castillarejo (Bronze)
• 32. Oliva
Cueva de la Ladera del
Castillo (Aeneolitlúc)
•33. Torís
La Carénda (Iberian)
• 34. Torrent
Muntanyeta de Cabrera
(Bronze)
•35. Aldaia
Ereta deis Moros (Roman)
• 36. Rocaiort
Cova de Rocaiort
(Aeneolithic)
• 37. Valéncia
Valentía (Roman)
Mint of Valentía (Roman)
• 38. Pinedo (Valéncia)
Submarine find (Roman)
• 39. El Saler (Valéncia)
Submarme find (lberian)
• 40. Picassent
Cova de 1'Aguila
(Coin find, 17th-C)
• 41. Montserrat
El Castellet (Bronze)
• 42. Yátova
Pico de los Ajos (lberian)
• 43. Dos Aguas
Cueva de la Cocina
(Epipalaeolithic)
•44. Zarra
Las Peñas (lberian)
•45. Ayora
Castellar de Meca (lberian)
•46. Navarrés
Ereta del Pedrega1
(AeneoUthic)
•47. Sumadlrcer
Senda Vedada rock
shelter (Upper
Palaeolithic)
•48. Carcaixent
Cova de Xarta (Aeneolithic)
Ca u Raboser (Aeneolithic)
Benibaire Alt (Roman)
• 49. Alzira
Cova dels Gats (Aeneolithic)
Cova de les Aranyes
(Aeneolithic)
Muntanya Assolada (Bronze)
• SO. Benicuii-PoUnya de
Xúquer Sima de la Pedrera
(Aeneolithic)
51. Corbera
Cova de la Mallada Verda
(Aeneolithic)
• 52. Cullera
Cova del Volcán del Faro
(Upper Palaeolithic)
A1t del Fort (lberian)
Punta de l'llla (Visigoth)
• 53. Chella
Cueva de la Soterraña
(Com fmd, 17th-O
• 54. Anna
Covacha Barrilla
(AeneoUthic)
• SS. Estubeny
Cova del Barranc de les
Meravelles (Aeneolithic)
• 56. Manuel
Les Foies (Roman)
• 57. Xativa
Cova Negra (Middle
Palaeolithic)
Penya de Sant Diego
(Bronze)
Mint of Saiti (Coin find)
SantaAtma
(Com fu1d, 16tll-C}
• 58. Benifairó de la Valldigna
Castell de la Rema Mora
(Cou1 filld, 13th-C)
• 59. Tavemes de la Valldigna
Cova de Bolomor (Lower
and Middle Palaeolithic)
• 60. Barx
Cova de les Mallaetes (Upper
Palaeolitlúc, Epipalaeolitlúc)
61. Gandia
Cova del Parpalló (Upper
Palaeoli tlúc)
Cova de les Meravelles
(Aeneolithic, Roman)
• 62. El Real de Gandia
Cova del Barranc del Nano
(Aeneolithlc)
• 63. Bellús
Cova de la Petxina (Middle
Palaeolitlúc)
• 64. Guadasséquies
El Cara-sol (Roman)
• 65. Vallada
Els Horts (Roman)
• 66. Moixent
Cova del Barranc de Palop
(Aeneolitlúc)
Bastida de les A1cusses
(lberian)
Corral de Saus (lberian)
• 67. La Pont de la Figuera
Cova Santa (Bronze)
• 68. Ontil1yent
Cova del Garrofer
(Aeneoli thic)
•69. Bélgida
Beniprí (Aeneolithic)
Ca mí de 1'AUogas
(Aeneolithic)
L'Atareó (Aeneolithic)
lsolated find (Roman)
• 70. Otos
Elpigraphic fmd (Roman)
• 71. Carrícola
Cova del Barranc del
Castellet (Aeneolitlúc)
• 72. Beniarrés
Cova de l'Or (Neolithic)
• 73. Oliva
Sant Antoni (Bronze)
Elca (Coin find, 10th-C)
• 74. Albaida
La Covalta (lberian)
• 75. Bocairent
Cova de la Sarsa (Neolithic)
Tossal de Sant Antoni
(Roman)
•76. Alcoi
El Salt (Middle Palaeolithic)
Cova de la Pastora
(Aeneolithic)
Mas de Menente (Bronze)
Mola Alta de Serelles
(Bronze)
• 77. Margarida-Pianes
El Xarpolar (lberian)
• 78. Quatretondeta
Penya Roja (Aeneolithic)
• 79. RAfol d' Almúnia
Isola ted fmd (Aeneoli tlúc)
• 80. Dénia
A1t de Be1úmaquia (Iberian)
• 81. Moraira-Teulada
Cova de les Cendres
(Upper Palaeolithic,
Neolithíc)
• 82. Altea
A1tea la Vella (Iberian)
• 83. Benidorm
Tossal de la Cala (lberian,
Roman)
• 84. La Vila Joiosa
lsolated fmd (Iberian)
• 85. M01úorte del Cid
Cou1 fmd (12th-13th C)
• 86. Crevillent
Ratlla del Bubo rock shelter
(Upper Palaeolitlúc)
• 87. Sa11 Fulgencio
La Escuera
(Coin find, iberian)
157
[page-n-158]
[page-n-159]
[page-n-160]
[page-n-161]
[page-n-162]
[page-n-2]
[page-n-3]
"Domingo Fletcher Valls"
PREHISTORY MUSEUM
VALENCIA PROVINCIAL COUNCIL
1995
[page-n-4]
DIPUTACIÓN DE VALENCIA
President
Manuel Taranc6n Fandos
Deputy-President for the Cultural Area
A11tonio Lis Darder
Director of the La Beneficencia Cultural Centre
Manuel Muñoz Ibáñez
S.I.P and Prehistory Museum Director
Bernat Martf Oliver
Design and layout
Francesc Chiner Vives
Photographs
José Manuel Gil-Caries
S.I.P Archive
Cover
Francesc Chiner Vives
English version by:
Simon Stepney
Printed by
Textos i Imatges, S.A.L.
Tel.: 342 23 15- Valencia
Thls book on the Prehlstory Museum was written to
mark the reopening of exhibition rooms at the La
Beneficencia Cultural Centre. The book was prepared, on behalf of the S.I.P. and the Prehlstory Museum, by a team comprising Bernat Martí Oliver,
Helena Bonet Rosado, Joaquim Juan Cabanilles, Ma
Jesús de Pedro Michó and Rafael Pérez Mínguez.
The responsibility for the scientific conclusions
drawn in these texts lies entirely with the authors of
thls work. Graphlc documentation was undertaken
by Francesc Chiner Vives, materials were restored
by Inocencio Sarrión Montañana; objects pertaining
to collections were transferred by Rafael Pérez
Mínguez, Rafael Fambuena Lucía and José Martí
Ferriol; graphic archives, Mª Teresa Clemente Hermosilla. Other members of the S.I.P., in acÍdition to
Eva Ripollés Adelantando and Pere Guillem Calatayud, ha ve also been of help.
ISBN: 84-7795-992-7
D.L.: V-4250-1996
© The Authors and S.I.P-Museo de Prehistoria
The S.I.P. acknowledges the collaboration of Domffigo Fletcher Valls (t), Lorenzo Abad Casal, Feuan Arasa Gil, Rafael Azuar Ruiz, Ernestina Badal
Garcia, Joan Bemabeu Aubán, Joan Cardona Escrivá, Pilar Caunona González, Emili Cortell Pérez, Enrique Díes Cusí, Michelle Dupré Ollivier,
Rosa Enguix Alemany, Vicent Escriva Torres, Josep Fernández Peris, Milagros Folgado López, Luz Fockedey, Javier Portea Pérez, Pilar Fumanal
Garcia, Antonio Garcia Menárguez, José A. Gisbert Santonja, Carlos Gómez Bellard, Francesc Gusi Je ner, Laura Hemández Alcaraz, Emilia Hernández Hervás, Isabel Izquierdo Peraile, Paula Jardón Giner, José L. Jiménez Salvador, Empar Juan Navarro, Vicent Lerma Alegria, José A. López
Mira, Enrique Llobregat Conesa, José M. Martínez García, José V. Martínez Perona, Rafael Martínez Valle, Pilar Mas Hurtuna, Manuel Oleína
Doménech, Teresa Orozco Kohler, Josep Ll. Pascual Benito, Ignacio Pastor Cubillo, Albert Ribera Lacomba, Miquel Rosselló Mesquida, Angel Sánchez Molina, Gloria Sanchis Clement, José M. Segura Martí, José L. Simón Garcia, Jorge Soler Dfaz, Miguel Vicente Gabarda and Lluís Zalbidea
Gómez, as well as the Prehistory and Archaeology Departments of the Universities of Valencia and Alicante, the Archaeological Museums of Alicante, DE~nia, Sagunt, Alcoi, Gandia, Villena, Elx, Santa Pola and Jaén, the National Archaeology Museum of Madrid, Servei d'Investigacions
Arqueologiques i Prehistoriques de Castelló, Conjunt Monumental d'Empúries and the National Cerarnics Museum of Valencia.
[page-n-5]
"Domingo Fletcher Valls"
PREHISTORY MUSEUM
by
BERNAT MARTÍ O LIVER
with the collaboration of
CARMEN ÁRANEGUI GASCÓ, HELENA BONET ROSADO,
PIERRE GUÉRIN fOCKEDEY, MAURO S. H ERNÁNDEZ PÉREZ,
JOAQUIM JUAN CABANILLES, M 2 DEL MAR LLORENS fORCADA,
CONSUELO MATA PARREÑO, M 2 JESÚS DE PEDRO MICHÓ,
PERE PAU RIPOLLÉS ALEGRE AND VALENTÍN VILLAVERDE BONILLA.
Translated by
SIMON STEPNEY
[page-n-6]
[page-n-7]
INTRODUCTION
In the long and fruitful history of the Prehistory Research Ser vice (S.I.P.) and
the Prehistory Museum of the Valencia Provincial Council, we can now affirm
with deep satisfaction that we ha ve begun a new stage. Quite a few years ha ve
passed since the year 1982, when the archaeological materials then on exhibit at
the present-day headquarters of the Council, the Batlia Palace, were patiently
and carefully removed from their cases and transferred to a new btúlding
known as the Casa de Beneficencia (Valencia's 'Charity 1-louse'). Botl1 hopes
and concerns were voiced to similar degrees at tl\e time of the move, as the
sheer magnitude of the undertaking was evident to all. Only now, at the end of
the road, is it possible to say with surety that it was thoroughly worth the effort.
Throughout all this time, and ever since its creation in 1927, the Prehistory
Museum has actively maintained its research activities and its concern for the
protection and preservation of our archaeological heritage. Above all, it has
made every effort to continue to be a forum in which members of Valencian
society can come face to face with our important archaeological heritage. Out
of this concern, and tl1rough the support of the Provincial Council, all the exhibits dedicated to varying periods of our prehistory have successively come
into being, following a waiting period wlúch has now been brought toa happy
conclusion. And this same concern and support gave rise to the privileged
framework of the Prehistory Museum today in the La Beneficencia Cultural
Centre, where the footprints left behind by our forebears again s hine under tl1e
soft lights of our rekindled interest, after various hundreds of thousands of
years ha ve utterly changed the face of our lands.
The archaeological collections and the intense labours of the Prehistory
Research Service and the Prelústory Musew11 are now being associated with the
name of Domingo Fletcl1er Valls, under whose directorship the Museum
achieved its maximum splendour. It is in his memory that we want to fuse together so many efforts undertaken for the benefit of our archaeological heritage,
made by a great number of scholars, and al! tl1ose who ha ve felt a kinslúp witl1
this institution over the length and breadth of the Valencian region, from the
museum's founder Isidro Ballester Tormo to its last director Enrique Pla
Ballester, and so many, many others. We tl1erefore have a valuable heritage before us in which aspirations and endeavours have been fully intertwined, a heritage we all feel to be part of ourselves, and of which we can feel rightfully pro ud.
MANUELTARANCÓNFANDOS
President of the Valencia Provincial Council
[page-n-8]
[page-n-9]
FOREWORD
The Prehistory Museum of the Valencia Provincial Council occupies a prominent position among our cultural institutions. Characterized by rigorous
work methods and remaining faithful to its threefold concern to conserve,
study and promote our archaeological heritage, the museum's special interest
in presenting us with all its collections has led to that marvellous reality wlúch
has now been inaugurated. The new exhibition rooms of the Prehistory Museum, the fruit of long labours made by a group of Valencian researchers who
combined their forces at the Prehistory Research Service in 1927, now give us
a close-up view of the life and labours of the first human societies living in this
territory thousands of years ago. Mixed in with the surprise and admiration
that archaeological collectíons always seem to produce, the names of important
settlements contribute to the creation of a complete tour of Valencia's geography, while the major milestones in the development of human society take
concrete forms and contents that change with the times to produce new material cultures and artistic creations, providing us witi't a basis for understanding
or at least for the enjoyrnent of the aesthetics presented by these fruits of
prehistoric man's achievements. They also inspire us to make new efforts to
protect and preserve such a fragile heritage from the past.
This concern to provide an appropriate showcase for all members of Valendan society, from the smallest schoolchild capable of discovering the vast
expanses of time occupied by man's past, to the trained expert seeking to deepen his or her knowledge of the past, is the main characteristic of this institution,
which now crosses a new threshold wlúle maintaining its traditionalline of
development. This is a major motive for satisfaction at the Cultural Area of the
Valencia Provincial Council, as we feel we are part of this effort which has enabled these excellent new installations at the La Beneficencia Cultural Centre
to be used by the museum, offering an appropriate framework in which we can
conveniently re-encounter our past and enjoyan important culturallegacy that
goes back from late Roman times into the depths of time.
ANTONIO LIS DARDER
Deputy-President for the Cultural Area
of the Valencia Provincial Council
[page-n-10]
[page-n-11]
CONTENTS
THE S.I.P AND ITS PREHISTORY MUSEUM
13
THE EXHIDITION ROOMS
18
FJRST FLOOR
19
l.
Valencian Archaeology
21
II.
Lower and Middle Palaeolithic: The First h1habitants
25
ill.
The Upper Palaeolithic: The Master Hunters
33
IV.
Palaeolithic Art: Animals and Signs
45
V.
The Mesolithic: The Last Hunters
53
VI.
The Neolithic: The First Farmers
57
VII.
Post-Palaeolithic Art: Images and Beliefs
69
VIII.
The Aeneolithic: The Copper Age
73
IX.
The Brot1Ze Age: The Diversity of Cultures
83
91
SECOND Fl..OOR
l.
The Mediterranean World
93
ll.
The Iberians: One Culture, Many Settlements
97
ID.
Large Iberian Settlements and their Surroundings: Economic Aspects
103
IV.
The Iberian Home
109
V.
Iberian Funeral Rites and Religion
113
VI.
El Tossal de Sant Miquel: The City of Edeta and its Environs
121
VII.
Iberian Writing
129
VIII.
Iberian Coins
133
IX.
The Roman Epoch
137
X.
Numismatics: Valendan Finds from the 10th-11th Centuries
149
BIBLJOGRAPHY
155
[page-n-12]
[page-n-13]
Exhibition rooms in tbe Prehistory
Museum
THE S.I.P. AND ITS PREHISTORY MUSEUM
Prehistory Research Service (S.I.P.) and the Prehistory Museum are two inseparable parts of the same
institution whose origins go back to 1927, when a
smaJJ group of people interested in Valencia's archaeologica1 heritage contributed to its creation under the
auspices of the Diputnci6n, the Valencia Provincial
Council. The principie promotor of the institution was
Isidro Ballester Tormo, who gave a clear outline of the
course to be followed by these two sides of the same
coin: first the S.I.P., with its efforts, excavations, studies and publications, wouJd bring about the growth
of the Prehistory Museum, and later, when the Museuro had become an operative reality, it wouJd be this
body which would serve as the framework for the
S.I.P.
The decades prior to 1927 had witnessed a gradual
increase in the number of archaeological excavations
being undertaken in Valencia, particuJarly from the
time these were regulated in 1912 by the Higher
Council for Excavations and Antiquities. It was
therefore necessary to create a centre, like those
already formed in Madrid and Barcelona, providing
the necessary means with which to study and recover
Valencia's archaeological heritage. Thanks to a
donation from Fernando Ponsell Cortés granting the
Valencia Provincial CounciJ the collection of archaeological materials which he had collected at
excavations of the Iberian settlements of Xarpolar de
Margarida and above all the Bronze Age village of
Mas de Menente in Alcoi, l. Ballester was able to give
shape to the Prehistory Research Service, with its
excavation departrnent, laboratory and specialized
library, and museum and publications sections.
The S.I.P. and its Prehistory Museum were installed on rather small premises at the Palau del
Temple, the seat of the Council at that time, although
13
[page-n-14]
PREHlSTORY MUSEUM
Pre history Museum exhibition room i\t the l'alau de la Gem~ralitat. 1946. (Photo: Sanchis)
by the end of 1927 they were moved to the Golden
Rooms of the Palau de la Genera lita t. From the outset,
the institution boasted a list of important na mes: Lluis
Pericot García, who had recently become head
p rofessor at the University of Valencia and was
appointed assistant manager of the institution, F.
Ponsell, Mariano Jornet Perales and Gonzalo Viñes
Masip, in addition to Salvador Espí Martí, who
became chief reconstructor for over three decades.
Excavations began .immediately at sites as sign.ificant
as the Cova Negra in Xativa, the basis for current
understanding of Valencia's Middle Palaeolithic, the
Tberian settlement of La Bastida de les Alcuses in
Moixent, where a magnificent collection of Tberian
Culture objects was initiated, and in 1929, the Parpalló
Cave in Gandia, whose importance for Upper
Palaeolithic stud.ies, and portable art in particular, was
to acqu ire immediate acclaim. By 1931, these sites had
been complemented by the Petxina Cave in Bellús and
the Sarsa cave in Boca.irent, restoration work at the
Muntanyeta de Cabrera hill site, a commission for lifesize replicas of rack shelter paintings from the Araña
14
caves in Bicorp, among others. lt was also at that time
when new collaborators were incorporated, such as
Emilio Gómez Nadal, Domingo Fletcher Valls, Ernesto
Jiménez Navarro, Julián San Valero Aparisi and
Manuel Vidal López; followed sorne years later by
Francisco Jordá Cerdá, José Chocomeli Galán, José
Alcácer Grau and Enrique Pla Ballester.
Purcl1ases during the initial years were to increase
the museum's holdings significantly: a collection
belonging to Federico Motos, an excavator at diverse
sites in Almería, Granada and Murcia, specializing in
the El Argar Culture; materials gathered by Manuel
Cazurro Ruiz, including an extensive group of vases
and misceUaneous Greek and Roman objects from
Empúries, and bronze wares from the Huertas de
Arriba mortuary chamber near Burgos, which consisted of shaving implements, bracelets and other
objects belonging to so-ca !Jed Atlantic Bronzes; and
finally the collection of Arturo Pérez Cabrero, comprising Punic implements and some Roman and
Medieval wares, mostly from Puig des Molins,
showing some terracotta from Es Cuieram.
[page-n-15]
THE S.f.P ANO lTS PREHlSTORY MUSEUM
Prehistory Museum ex hibition room at the Palau de la Batlia. 1960s.
As a result of the explorations undertaken by collaborators, we can see how a series of site names wlúch
would later be acquiring fame began to appear in archaeological references as of 1932, such as the lberian
settlements of Cova Foradada, and Monravana in
Lliria, Torre Seca in Casinos, or the prehistoric sites of
the Cova de l'Or in Beniarrés, the Turche rock shelter,
and Venta Mina cave in Buñol, among otl1ers. Of major
importance was El Tossal de Sant Miquel in Uíria,
where excavati011 work was begun in 1933. The rooms
and halls of the Museum were established in 1936 at
the Palau de la Generalitat, continuing until1950 wiili
only minor modifications owing mostly to the incorporation of new materials in the exhibition haUs.
In February 1937, the Valencia Provincial Council,
known at the time as the Conse/1, founded the Institut
d'Estudis Valencians, incorporating the Prehistory
Research Service and its Prehistory Museum under a
History and Archaeological Department headed by L
Ballester, of whid1 D. Fletcher was secretary, although
because he had been given a leave of absence it was
Felipe Mateu i Llopis who acted as stand-in secretary.
A magazine was published in Valencian called Serie de
Trebn/ls So/ts and the first four issues were
incorporated with the existing Archives of Levnnfine
Prehistory and the institute's annual report. Museum
holdings were increased with two important collections: a terracotta figure collection from Ibiza gathered
together by the Valencian scholar Francisco Martínez y
Martínez, and a collection built up by Ernesto Botella
Candela at excavations of the Valencian Bronze Age
settlement of Mola Alta de Serelles in Alcoi. The
prolonged stay in Valencia of the delegation of the
National Natural Science Museum enabled palaeontological materials from the Cova Negra and the
Parpalló cave to be deaned and dassified.
As of 1941, the S.I.P. slowly recommenced its prospection and excavation tasks following the Spanish
Civil War. The El Tossal de Sant Miguel site in Llíria
continued to receive special attention, and new excavations were undertaken at the Cocina cave in Dos
Aguas, the Aeneolithic multiple burial chamber at the
Pastora cave in Alcoi, the settlement and cave at Mal
Paso in Castellnovo, Ereta del Pedregal in Navarrés,
15
[page-n-16]
PREHISTORY MUSEUM
Prehistory Museum exhibition room at the Pala u de la Ballia. 1970s.
the Mallaetes cave in Barx, the Llatas cave in Andilla,
the Peña de la Dueña in Teresa, and the Atalayuela in
Losa del Obispo, among others. At the end of the
decade, the Service and its Prehistory Museum had
been consolidated, and there was a great deal of
documentation on Valencia's archaeological heritage,
a specialized library and a series of in-house publications. The institute had become part of the Hlgher
Council for Scientific Research in 1945 as the Valencia
Prehistory Section and later became part of the
Alfonso el Magnánimo Institution.
In 1950 D. Fletcher became head of the S.I.P. management team, with E. Pla as assistant manager. Both
men had collaborated for many years with I. Ballester.
At this time the decision of the provincial authorities
to install their offices in the Palau de la Generalitat
brought about a split-up of the premises of the
Prehistory Museum, and this precarious situation
continued until 1955, when a considerable portion of
the Palau de la Batlia was given over to the museum.
Installation continued until 1958, and the exhibition
rooms opened at that time were kept more or less as
16
they were for the next twenty-five years. Under the
directorship of D. Fletcher, the Prehistory Museum
enjoyed its most fruitful period.
During this period, ordinary recovery operations
and excavation campaigns were punctuated by works
at both old and new sites. Among the former were El
Tossal de Sant Miquel, the Cova Negra in Xativa or the
Parpalló cave; among the latter were the Iberian
settlements of Villares in Caudete de las Fuentes and
Monravana in Lliria, the Late Roman settlement at
Punta de l'Illa in Cullera and the Cova de l'Or in
Beniarrés, an exceedingly fruitful Neolithic site. The
Museum incorporated much of the material pertaining
to these new campaigns in its exhibition halls, as well
as a few donations such as those made by M. Jornet
and Juan Pablo Pérez Caballero. In 1960 Rubén
Antorúo Vela donated an extensive collection of South
American archaeological findings to the Museum,
particularly from the Tiahuanaco Solivian culture. In
1963, room was made for a fine bronze statue found on
Pinedo beach near Valencia, possibly a representation
of Apollo.
[page-n-17]
THE S.I.P ANO lTS PREHlSTORY MUSEUM
Prehistory Museurn exhibition room at the Casa de Beneficencia. 1987.
At thls time, a large group of collaborators worked
with the S.I.P., spread throughout the Valencian region:
Gandia, Villar del Arzobispo, Cullera, Oliva, Requena,
Borriana, Benicarló, Castelló de Rugat, etc. Continua!
actions were undertaken to defend and recover the
region's archaeological heritage in the face of destruction and losses caused by earth movers and builders.
These activities were consolidated in the sixties with
the help and collaboration of many new researchers,
usually connected with university deparbnents, converting the S.I.P. into an essential institution linked to
the future of Valencian archaeology.
Sorne years later, in 1982, a new period began in the
long hlst01y of the S.l.P. The headquarters of the Valencia Provincial Council moved from the Palau de la
Generalitat to the Palau de la Batla, which had serious
consequences for the Museum. lt was forced to make a
new move, this time to the building of the former
House of Charity (Casa de la Beneficencia), now tmder
the direction of E. Pla. The consequences for the da y-today life of the institution were important, but activities
by no means carne to a halt: a new library was opened,
field work continued, as did storeroom labour for
archaeological materials, documentation tasks and
studies. One year la ter, in 1983, the Museum re-opened
to the public at the Casa de la Beneficencia, with a
monographlc exlubition dedicated to Iberian Culture.
In 1984 an exhibition of Hunter Societies in Valencian
Prehistory was inaugurated, forming the basis for the
Palaeolitluc, Palaeolitluc Art and Epipalaeolitluc rooms.
In 1987 the main exhlbits for the Neolithic room were
brought together, with B. Martí now director of the S.I.P.
The decision of the Valencia Provincia] Council in
1993 to completely restore the Casa de la Beneficencia
so as to make it more suitable for museum use brings us
down to the present day. The S.l.P. and its Prehistory
Museum closed their doors for a short period and then
re-opened to the public in 1995 in the present framework of the La Beneficencia Cultural Centre, with the
aim of preserving what has been its main object and
underlying spirit for so many years: serving as a forum
for botl1 the local population and visitors to thls region
so as to provide a picture of the land's most remote
Iustory, the story of Va1encia's archaeological heritage.
17
[page-n-18]
PREHISTORY MUSEUM
THE EXHIBITION ROOMS
The exhibition rooms of the Prehistory Museum occupy the first and second floors of
the right wing of the La Beneficencia Cultural Centre. Exhibited here are sorne of the
most outstanding testimonies of human societies having settled in this region- from the
earliest vestiges of man's presence, until the days of the late Roman empire, plus a small
coin collection from later ages. These material remains, considered to be of great
relevance, are presented chronologically and within each of the periods established by
current standards of historical research. Occasionally, they have also been arranged in
accordance with the archaeological site where they were found, as many of these sites
ha ve been given individual treatment in view of the special information they have been
capable of providing.
18
[page-n-19]
THE EXHIBITION ROOMS
FIRSTFLOOR
ROOM 1: VALENCIAN
ARCHAEOLOCY
ROOM 11: THE LOWER ANO MrDDLE PALAEOLITHIC
ROOM Ul: TI rE U PPER P ALAEOLITHIC
ROOM IV:
PALAEOLITHIC ART
ROOM V: TH E MEsoLITHIC
ROOM VI: THE
N EOLITJ-UC
ROOM V Il: P OST-PALAEOLITH IC ART
ROOM
VUI: TH E A ENEOLITHIC
ROOM IX:
TH E BRONZE AGE
350,000 120,000
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19
[page-n-20]
.·
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[page-n-21]
S.l.P. excavations
in the Parpalló cave (Gandia),
around 1930.
Room 1 provides n view of Vnleucinu nrc/meo/ogy througlt
loen/ refereuce works: /he reporls of /he Vnleucin Arc/meolog¡¡ Society
publislted iu 1871, nud oue of tite mmwscripts wrilfeu by junu Vilnuovn y Piem (b. 1821 iu
Vnleucin, d. 1893 iu Mndrid), wlto populnrized preltisfory stltdies iu Spnitt i11 lhe 19th ceulury.
Mnjol' nrcltneologicnl sil es kuowu ni preseul nre iudicnted 011 nu iuternctive mnp of lite regiou of
Vnleucin. A schemntic model of nu nrcltneologicnl excnvnliou site sltows lite bnsics of the
nrclmeologicnlmelhod, evideuciug some of lite difficullies of preserviug our somelimes very fmgile
cullurñl lteritnge.
l. VALENCIAN ARCHAEOLOGY
Valencian archaeological research has a long
tradition. As of the Renaissance, studies on tbe ancient
world began to inspire tbe founding of Antiquities
Departments, bringing about the birth of Archaeology
as a scientific metbod of recovering cultural material
from societies predating the present. In Valencia,
interest in works of art and monuments from the past
began to appear in the days of the Enlightenment, in
the 18th century. Well-known sites today, such as Alcúdia in Elx, TossaJ de Manises in Alicante, Banyets de
la Reina in Calp, El Puig or Sagunt, became related to
relevant personalities of the age such as F. Pérez Bayer,
J.A. Mayans, A. de Valcárcel orA.J. Cavanilles. We also
ha ve reports that in the last third of the 18th century a
collection of antiquities of sorne importance was
brought together at the archbishop's palace in Valencia. In 1792, E. Palos y Navarro dedicated a room in the
town hall of Sagunt to Iberian and Roman inscriptions.
AJmost half a century later, as a consequence of the
saJe of church property initiated by the Spanish government in 1835, Valencia founded an antiques
museum in the Convento del Carmen under the directora te of the San Carlos Academy with the airo of ensuring the preservation of quite a number of artistic
objects. One last reference is the year 1871, when the
Valencia Archaeological Society was created, among
whose founding members were outstanding researchers such as R. Chabás, subsequent founder and
director of the magazine El Archivo, and S. Moreno, A.
!barra andA. Chabret.
It was around this time, well into the second half of
the 19th century, when archaeological activities widened their scope to include Prehistory, whose birtb as
a new science had much to do with the development
of Geology and the acceptance of the theory of the
evolution of the species, fostering tbe acknowledge-
21
[page-n-22]
PREHISTORY MUSEUM
ment of man's remote origins. Worthy of mention as a
popularizer of Prehistory studies in Spain was J.
Vilanova y Piera, who brought his influence to bear in
the excavation of the Llometes cave in Alcoi by E.
Vilaplana in 1884, in addition to carrying out other
activities and editing publications. Not long afterwards, at the start of the 20th century, archaeological
activities began to multiply in the Valencian region: J.
Furgús explored sites in Orihuela, M. Rico supervised
digs into the subsoil of Alicante with meticulous care,
l. Ballester began excavating Covalta in Albaida
around 1910, H. Fornés excavated the Rotxina settlement in Sot de Ferrer in 1913 and 1914, C. Visedo
discovered La Serreta in Alcoi in 1917, J. Belda started
explorations of the Torre de les Ma<;anes, etc.
Thus, quite a few years of research and discovery,
plus the unearthing of outstanding discoveries in the
first decades of the 20th century, called for the creation
of a Valencian archaeological museum that would help
to preserve these treasures and prevent their dispersion or even their export from this region. Immediately preceding this endeavour, in the 1920s, an Archaeology Laboratory was created at the University of
Valencia, and the Valencian Cultural Centre was
founded. Although these did not contribute to the appearance of institutions with a capacity for undertaking archaeological excavations, they did play an
important role in the development of archaeological
studies and the systematic prospection of certain
districts. The next step forward would be the creation
of the S.I.P. and, a little la ter, the Archaeology Museum
in Alicante in 1931.
Archaeological patrimony is a fundamental part of
our cultural heritage, ie, the sum total of manifestations reflecting the collective personality of a given
society and its past development. Archaeological sites
are part of this heritage. They are highly important
legacies that enable us to expand our knowledge of
societies which have left no written documents.
Our archaeological heritage in Valencia is an inalienable asset, an asset which should be preserved
22
and protected in all manner of ways, from both expoliation and indiscriminate manipulation. Large-scale
public works-part and parcel of urban development-and important transformations of agricultura!
lands should be compatible with respect for cultural
vestiges from the past. Our archaeological heritage
should never be considered as an obstade to economic
development today. Public institutions such as the
regional government, Ln Genernlitnt, town councils,
universities and museums are called upon to foster the
study of this heritage, its preservation and diffusion,
ensuring that future generations will also have the
opportunity to see what we have preserved from the
past so that it can be enjoyed both today and
tomorrow.
Archaeological excavation is the method used by
Archaeology, the science that attempts to reconstruct
the history of human society by usíng material
remains from the past. Excavation techniques vary
depending on the nature of the site and the medium in
which vestiges are found. Excavations cannot be the
same, for instance, in a cave, on an open hill site, in the
urban environment, or at an underwater site. Nevertheless, there are certain basic principies which always
remain the same. All archaeological interventions start
with the determinatíon of the area to be üwestigated
and the precise delimitation and identification of the
zones, sectors or grids to be excavated. Thereafter, the
sediments or deposits covering or surrounding the
remains are extracted followíng artificial or natural
layers. lt is essential to adopt a precise measuring and
reference systen1 which can Jater be applied to the
positions of the finds, permitting their exact localizatíon and enabling the extractíon process to be reconstructed. Each site is a unique and unreplaceable
document wlúch unfortunately has to be partially
destroyed in order to be interpreted. Tlús is why it is
so important that archaeological investigation should
be undertaken only by a sufficiently large .interdisciplinary team permitting all informatíon to be
recovered and preserved for the future.
[page-n-23]
S.I.P. excavations
at La Bastida de les Alcuses (Moixent), around 1929.
S.l.P. excavations
at El Tossal de Sant Miquel (Liíria), around 1936.
23
[page-n-24]
[page-n-25]
Silex tools from the Cova Negra (Xativa).
Moustcrian spearpoint, denticulate,
scraper and Oake. Middle Palaeolithic:
between 120,000 and 35,000 years BP (before
the present). Length of largest piece 6.9cm.
Room U conlnins exnmples of lile firsl lestimo11ies of mn11's
prese11ce 011 Enrlll. Evolutionnry developmenl is illustrnted using replicns
of fossilized llomi11id crnniums fowrd in Afrien nnd Europe. Tllese cnrr be compnred witlra Homo
sapiens sapiens crnrrium formd irr tire Pnrpnlló cnve irr Gnrrdin, dntirrg fromtlle begimring of tire
Upper Pnlneolitllic. Tire oldesl lrnces of 1/re preserrce of mnrr ;, tire Vnlencinn regionnre n series
of stone implemenls nnd nnimnl remnins from tire lotoer levels of 1/re Bolomor cnve in Tavemes de
Vnlldignn, dnled ni over 350,000 yenrs befare lile preserrl. Arlifncts nrrd arrima/ remnins froml/re
Middle Pnlneolilllic llave been rmenrllred in tire Cooo Negrn irr Xlllioo, lile Pet:rimr cave in Bellrís
nrrd lile Snlt cnve in Alcoi, tfnlirrg from 120,000 lo 35,000 yenrs before lile preserrl. Of pnrlicrrlnr
rrote are tlle Nenrrtfertllnl remai11s tliscoveretf irr lile Covn Negmnrrd lile Bolomor cnve.
II. THE LOWER ANO MIDDLE PALAEOLITHIC:
THE FIRST INHABITANTS
The first stages in the process of man's development
go back over 4 million years before the present. According to present-day knowledge, the stages corresponding to various types of Australopithecus man and Hamo
lmbilis were limited to African regions alone. But approxin1ately one rnillion years ago Homo erectus embarked upon the first expansion of mankind into Asia
and Europe, bringing about the development of various
evolutionary processes of a regional n~ture. This is why
it is difficult toda y to consider Homa erectus as a definite
type of man with universal characteristics. Instead, current scientific knowledge accepts t~e theory of a complex and heterogeneous evolutionáry process in which
certain African types, formerly classified as ~rchaic
Hamo snpiens, played a central role in the process of the
appearance of modern man in the anatomical sense.
In Europe and the Near East, regional evolutionary
patterns resulted in Homo erectus populations develop-
ing into Neanderthals, characterized by their high
cranial capacity and their strong facial features. The
evaluation of their role in the process of the appearance
of modern man in Europe is controversia!. Sorne
scientists think their influence was decisive, others
maintain that their inability to mate with new hwnan
forms led to their extinction.
The Quaternary is the geological period in which
man arase and developed. It is divided into the Pleistocene and the Holocene (or Recent) epochs or series.
Despite the brevity of this period in geological terms,
clima tic phenomena producing the successive advance
and retreat of the polar icecaps and the rise and fall in
the level of the seas, bringing about changes in hwnid
and arid zones, had great consequences for the
development of man, both in respect of continental
colonization and man's adaptation to varying surroundings.
25
[page-n-26]
PREHISTORY MUSEUM
The Bolomor Cave (Tavemes de Valldigna, La Safor
district) is a key site for the study of the Lower Palaeolithic .in the region. It overlooks a Iarge expanse of the
tectonic depression of La Valldigna and has sedimentary deposits over 7 metres in depth. It is therefore a
prime source of information on the palaeo-environment
and the cultural manifestations of the Middle Pleistocene, thanks to an abundance of remains of large and
small mammals, and rock collections (flake tools) of preMousterian and Lower Mousterian manufacture. In
addition, the sequence of Iayers and their anthropic
contents have been subjected to thermoluminescence
dating. The oldest traces of inhabitation by man reach
back to the Middle Pleistocene, perhaps at the time of
the advance of the MiJ1del glaciation, over 350,000 years
ago. The species of mankmd existing at that time was
Romo erectus, responsible for the majority of cultural
manifestations in the Lower Palaeolithic. Valencian
sites, however, have not yet provided fossil evidence of
this precursor of modern man.
During the stages in which the Neanderthal culture
was widespread, the Middle Palaeolithic, from 200,000
to 35,000 years befare the present, fu1dings of human
fossils increase considerably. The rise of funeral rites
explaiJ1s this ü1crease in documentation, amounting to
sorne two hundred individuals fow1d throughout
Europe and the Near East. In the Valencian region, three
sites have offered up bone remaiJ1s corresponding to
diverse anatomical parts of inctividuals of different
ages. In Xativa's Cava Negra, remains of at least five
individuals have been found, including both adults and
children. The Bolomor cave has provided us with a
child's molar. The Tossal de la Font site m Vilafamés
provided a coxa and a humeros. All these are from
Neanderthals, as evidenced by their chronological positions and their morphologica1 cl1aracteristics, thereby
confirming the importance of this group of humans
along Spa.in's Mediterranean region.
The Cova Negra (Xativa, La Costera district), an impressive cavity overlooking the Albaida river, was one
of the first archaeological sites to be researched iJ1 the
region of Valencia. It was mentioned as far back as 1872
by J. ViJanova y Piera, and the continued attention it has
received js fully justified by the rich potential of its
sedimentary deposits, the wide time span it covers, the
excellent preservation of the bone remaü1s it contains
26
and the exceptional importance of the humru1 remams
discovered there to date. The Cova Negra has enabled
present-day researchers to determü1e the kind of fatma
having existed m this region during the first stages of
the Würm glaciation, the most recent Ice Age; both large
herbivorous and carnivorous animals, and others of a
smaller size--birds, bats, rodents. Thus, two signi.ficant
associations can be described between anima.ls on the
one hru1d and temperature ru1d humidity changes on
the other, with reference to Würm 1 and Würm II. The
first period shows remains of species pertaining to a
relatively humid, arboreal environment, such as the
ancient elephant (Pnleoloxodon nntiquus), Merck's rhü1oceros (Dicerorl!imts kirchbergensis), the fallow deer (Dnmn
sp.), an equü1e (Equ11s cnbnllus), a macaque (Mncncn
sylvnnn), the hyena (Crocttfn crocutn) and a feline resembllilg the tiger (Pnnthern spelnen). The second period
provides us with remams of species which were better
adapted to life on the steppes, such as the steppe rlunoceros (Dicerorhinus hemitoechus), the deer (Cervus elnplws), the wild goat (Cnprn pyrennicn), the tahr (Hemifmgus sp.), a leopard (Pnnthem pnrdus), the wolf (Cnnis
lupus) and the dhole (Cuan nlpinus).
The sílex flakes found at excavation sites are practically the only evidence of commonplace tools having
reached us from the Lower and Middle PaJaeolithic. In
all proba.bilitJ¡ these flakes were fixed to wooden handles usiJ1g resm, then bound with vegetable fibre, alÚmal tendons or strips of leather, as replicated even m
our da y m the technologies of existing hunting societies.
These sílex flakes were used to perform various domestic and subsistence tasks, as can be confirmed today by
a microscopic analysis of their signs of usage and wear.
During the Middle Palaeolithic stone industries
throughout Europe concentrate less attention on the
production of core tools and show a clear preference for
usi.ng flakes which have been retouched or having undergone a secondary working. Various methods were
used to rework these fla.kes, and the choice seems to
have been related to the characteristics ru1d abundance
of the existing raw material around a given site. Middle
Palaeolithic industries cover a time-span clase to two
hundred thousand years, during which time no significant d1anges were shown m the type of manufacture
and the shape of the instru.ments employed. This lack of
evolution, the technical and morphological uniformity
[page-n-27]
Silex, quartz and limesto ne tools
from the Cova de Bolomor (Tavemes
de 1;~ Vi!lldigna). Corc, scrapers, notched
pieces and denticulates. Lower PaJaeolit hic:
over 250,000 years old. Length of largest
piece 6.3cm.
Fossilized parietal bone of a Homo snpiens uenmferlltnleusis fow1d at Cov;~ Negra. Outer and inner surface. MiddJe Palaeolithic: from 120,000 to
35,000 Br. Length 12.0cm. (Pho to: Liébana).
27
[page-n-28]
observed in the materials recovered from widespread
geograplúcal zones, and the lack of variety in tool types
produced aH seem to inclicate that stone tools must have
played a lirnited role as a means for man's adaptation to
the environment. Oespite tlús, the variety of the procedures used shows a certain amotmt of technological
advancement anda capacity for adaptation to the nature
of the raw materiaJs available, and probably, to the conditioning factors derived from the provisional nature of
the habitat and the type of food sources available.
Based on these and otl1er data we can deduce that European Neanderthal populations were characterized by
ilieir rughly adaptable economies, capable of integrating
food sources derived from hunting and scavenging, and
also by their lúgh mobility. Tlús capacity to move from
place to place seems to have offset technological deficiencies and the lack of plaru1il1g for obtaining resources.
28
At the Cova Negra, the taphonomic study of the
bones-tl1eir marks, fue variations shown in different
skeletal remains having been documented, fueir clispersion, etc.-enables us to conjecture that both
Neanderthal inhabitants and carnivores often carried
the remains of herbivores to the cave. Arnong fue carnivores, the hyena was the most active during Würm I,
whereas the dhole and wolf were more important
during Würm ll and the begiruúng of III, concentrating
on the capture of meclium-sized mammals such as the
tahr and wild goat. On the other hand, the rernains of
small prey, such as rabbits, were mostly contributed by
birds of prey using fue walls of the cave as perches and
regurgitating onto fue cave floor. Signs of habitation by
man, alternating wifu fue carnivores, show that deer,
goats and equines were captured and taken to the cave
as food for NeanderthaJ man.
[page-n-29]
Remains of Pleistocene animals from the Cova
Negra. Left to righ t: Molars of Merck's rhinoceros
(Dicerorlliuus kircl1bergeusis), metacarpal and
phalangeal bones of a steppe rhinoceros
(Dicerorhiuus llemitoeclms), tusk and molar of an
ancient elephant (Pnlneoloxodou nutiquus). Middle
Palaeolithic: from 120,000 to 35,000 years BP.
Length of tusk: 27.0cm.
Bifacially Oaked siliceous limestone tools from
Cova Negra. Middle Palaeolithic:
from 120,000 to 35,000 years BP.
Length of largest piece 12.5cm.
Silex, quartzite and siliceous limestone tools
from Cova Negra. J>ara·01arentian-industry
denticulates and scrapers.
Middle Palaeolithic: from 120,000 to 35,000
years or. Length of largest piece 8.5cm.
29
[page-n-30]
Silex points from Cova Negra. Soyons
point and Mousterian poinl. Middle
Palaeolithic: from 120,000 to 35,000 years
01'. Lengths 4.8 and 5.3cm.
30
[page-n-31]
Silex tools from Cova Negra. Scrapers
and piece with Clactonian no tch
from a Quina-type industry.
Middle Palaeolithic: from 120,000 to 35,000
years BP. Length of largest piece 7.0cm.
Rema ins of Pleistocene animals
from Cova Negra. Metapodia l
and pllalangeal bones of
various feHnes. Right to left: ·
lynx (Felis 1/yux} pnrrliua),
leopard (Pauf/rem pnrrlus) and
cavern Hon. Midd le
Palaeolithic: from 120,000 to
35,000 years BP. Length of
largest bone 13.5cm.
[page-n-32]
[page-n-33]
Doubled-pointed and single-pointed antier
javelin tips from Cova de les Mallaetes
(Barx). Aurignacian bone industry:
from 35,000 to 25,000 years BP.
Lengths 22.0 and 13.0cm.
Room ill is dedicated to the master hunters of
the Upper Palaeolithic. Materials discovered in the Parpal/6
cave in Gandia, the Mallaetes cave in Barx, Cendres cave in M01·airn, Volcán
cave in Faro de Cullern, Ratlla del Buba cave in Crevillent and tlze Senda
Vedada rack slzelter in Sumacilrcer all correspond to the appearnnce of modern
man. Stone and bone implements evolved, man's activities widened and his
hunting methods became more perfected. New pattems of territorial
occupntion can be seen, and there is also evidence of climatic changes and
variations in the coastline occurring during the Upper Pala ea/ithic, belween
35,000 and 10,000 yenrs befare the present.
III. THE UPPER PALAEOLITHIC:
THE MASTER HUNTERS
The Upper Palaeolithic is the age when modern
man makes his appeaxance. This is the most complex
and documented stage of man's prehistoric development, the age of skilled hunters and food gatherers. The
process began sorne 35,000 years ago, starting with
Würm m, and continued for 25,000 years dming which
a variety of cultW'es spread across Emope, constituting
a magnificent example of the degree of social and cultural complexity that can be achieved by groups which
are perfectly adapted to the resources offered by their
environment, going far beyond mere subsistence levels.
A great many advances were made dW'ing the Upper Palaeolithic with respect to the Middle Palaeolithic.
Hwlting became much more efficient, thanks to the
refinement of hunting techniques and the use of blades
which could be thrown; raw materials were used more
efficiently, implying a gradual decrease of dependency
on localized sources of supply; more speciaJized tools
were incorporated and greater diversity was shown in
toolmaking. New concepts in stone working brought
about by the development of the blade-making industry
(blades which were longer rather than wider) enabling
the cutting edge of the material to be increased considerably with respect to its weight in silex. In addition to
the use of wood as in former times, bone and antler
were brought into play. Complex funeral rites became
widespread, and greater attention was paid to structuring dwellings, and both wall painting and portable
art were introduced.
In the region of Valencia, the first Upper Palaeolitluc
industries correspond to the late Aurignacian periodthe typical Aurignacian period in whlch javelins witl1
bone blades were used, as we can see in the Mallaetes
cave in Barx- , meaning that Hamo sapiens sapiens was
present here, although the extent of his occupation of
local territories was still limited to only a few settle-
33
[page-n-34]
PREHJSTORY MUSEUM
ments. Slowly but surely, however, during the Gravettian period, sorne 25,000 years before the present, the
number of sites began to increase, showing characteristic Gravette points, pieces with abrupt retouching,
and scrapers, all of which presented a series of specifically Mediterranean characteristics showing great
originality and dynamics.
Around 21,000 years ago, in the last stages of Würm
ill and during the Würm Jll-IV interstadial, Western
Ew·ope, and particularly the lberian península and
France, was the site of the Solutrean culture, which
marked the true turning point in Palaeolithic times. The
Solutrean signified a notable change in the composition and type of stone implements, something which
is shown in the use of flat retoudllilg techniques that
gave rise toa type of point with no known antecedents.
It was a teclmical procedme for the improvement of
stone materials intended to make points for darts or
speaTs, as the flat retouching work propitiated the
obtention of good-sized points with straight-edged
longitudinal sections. Each phase of the Solutrean
produced its own specific type of point, g:iving rise to
the so-called lberian facets found at Valencian sites.
Perhaps the points that best represent the unigueness of
these facets are those showing a peduncle ru1d wings
from the Upper Solutrean, documented in great
number and variety of forms in the Parpalló cave of
Gandia. Appeari.ng together with these are eared
poi.nts, which were more original than their successors
in the local Solutrean.
Finally, more thru1 in any other stage of the Palaeolithic, it is in the Magdalenian, starting about 16,000
years before the present and developing over approxi.mately six millennia tmtil the end of the last gladation,
that a veritable treasure-horde of objects and utensils in
bone and antier were produced. The shapes of these
objects do not present much doubt concenllilg the uses
to which they were put, and we cru1 therefore find
points for javelins, pins, sewing needles, spatulas, retouchers, pestles, etc., or necklaces, whistles, rattles,
harpoons, slings, hooks, etc. When the shapes of objects
do not clearly indicate their use, we can think of them
as simple adornments, or too! handles or perforated
sticks, or as ritual objects and others whicl1 are exclusively artistic, sucl1 as rods and plaques.
34
The Mallaetes cave (Barx, La Safor district) is
located in one of the northenunost peaks of the Mondúver massif. It has a stratigraphic seguence that covers
a good part of the Upper Palaeolithic and also includes
the initial phases of the Mesolithic, supplementing at
certain points in time the finds from the neighbouring
Parpalló cave, owing especially to its Amignacian levels
showing the first manifestations of modern man. Another interesting feature of this site is that it helps to
reconstruct the palaeoenvirorunent at the e.nd of the
Würm glaciation, complementing studies mtdertaken
using the methods of sedimentology and palynology.
Thus, the Mallaetes cave, Cova Negra ru1d the Bolomor
cave cover practically 300,000 years of climatic and cultural events having occurred in the prehistory of the
reg:ion of Valencia.
The Parpalló cave (Gandia, La Safor district),
located Ü1 the rocky southe.m side of the Mondúver
massif, owes its discovery as a prehistoric site to J. Vilanova y Piera in 1866. Major excavations of the site were
undertaken in 1929 and 1931 under the supervision of
U. Pericot. The results were published in 1942, in a now
classic work that permitted Valencian Upper Palaeolith.ic sequences and characteristics to be established for
the first time, while proving their similarity with other
European Palaeolitlúc si tes. Tlús was possible thanks to
excellent stratigraplúc deposits measuring over 8
metres in depth and to the wealth of materials unearthed here, including important stone and bone unplements, adornments, and human and a11in1al remains,
plus other testimonies of occupation of the cave by
human populations down through the ages. But above
all, the Parpalló cave becarne farnous for its 5,000
engraved and pai.nted limestone plaques which were
fotmd on alllevels of the si te, offeru1g a broad overview
of artistic sequences in Upper Palaeolithic art.
Hunting societies were at the forefront of a contu1ual
search for improvements in weapons with the ailn of
aclúeving both greater precision in shooting anda more
lethal effect when weapons were launched, a11d also a
simpler process of manufacture and repair. Apart from
the new developments registered at the beginning of the
Upper Palaeolithic with the appearance of points which
were lighter than those of the Mousterian, possibly de-
[page-n-35]
Juvenile Homo snpieus snpíeus
cranium, probably female,
found in the Parpalló cave
(Gandin). Lower Solutrean level:
from 21,000 to 19,000 years BP.
(Photo: Liébana).
Silex tools from
Cova de les Mallaetes.
Gravctte points and Gravettian leafs
nnd backed points:
from 25,000 to 21,000 years 61'. Length
o ( largest piece 6.2cm.
35
[page-n-36]
PREHISTORY MUSEUM
signed for use with throwers, there were others revealing manufacturing techniques increasingly adapted to
more precise functions, in which greater efficacy was
progressively observed. Tlüs is the case of the first documented thrower hooks from the Solutrean, made from
antier for assembly on wooden handles; or the rods and
javelins with channels cut into them for the insertion of
microliths to create barbee! points; or harpoons and
fishhooks for the improvement of fishing techniques.
Compared to the unifonn nature of Mousterian instruments, Upper Palaeolitlúc stone and bone industries
present differences of a regional character indicating
that material culture played an important role in adaptation to local surroundings, as each type of resource
seems to have generated its own dass of implement and
each group adopted its own stylistic features, signifying
a deliberate search for identity. These changes affected
the habitat and the economy, and man developed new
ways to occupy territories and more sophisticated
systems of using natural resources.
With respect to the habitat, Ü\e idea that caves constituted tl1e only place of habita non of Palaeolithic man
is not entirely true, as although in glacial times roan did
take advantage of the shelter they offered as protection
against indemencies, it is also true that he frequently
built camps in the open air when tl1e drcumstances
Silex points from the
Parpalló cave. laurellea( style from the
Middle Solutrean:
from 19,000 to 17,000
years BP. Length of
largest piece 7.3cm.
36
arose. Cavities were never occupied directly; instead
they were used for mounting tents, windbreaks and palisades that would help to maintain habitable conditions.
lt can be stated generally that in areas occupied by Upper Palaeolithic hunters there were different functional
orientations for each particular site, with considerable
differences being observed between base camps, occupied during longer periods by a larger group of people,
and specialized camps used for hunting or food-gathering work, being occupied by a smaller number of persons. Evidencc of fires, remains of food and material
workmanship and other vcstiges of human activities all
enable us to deduce the structure and layout of these
carnps, with indications as to their function and their
seasonal occupation.
In the Parpalló cave and the Mallaetes cave, ie,
throughout thc majority of the Upper Palaeolithic, goats
a11d deer are the species providing most of the meat ea ten by hunting societies, with horses, aurochs and rabbits providing additional though less copious provender. Economies at the end of the Upper Palaeolithic
show a greater amount of specialization. Sites from this
period such as the Cendres cave (Teulada-Moraira, La
Marina Baixa district) provide animal references dominated by only one species of hoofed animal: either the
deer or the goat. Complementing this species are the
[page-n-37]
Silex points from the Parpalló
cave. Peduncle and winged
points from the late Solutrean:
between 17,000 and 16,000
years BP. Length of largest piece
5.3cm.
remains of rabbits, abundant in number but of course
providing less food than hoofed animals. These food resource patterns correspond toa certain type of territorial occupation in which Magdalenian peoples inhabited
different zones in accordance with the seasonal ha bits of
certain animals. Deer and goats are species covering
short migrational areas, they are territorial and have
mating and reproductive patterns which are fairly foreseeable. Hunting for young animals at times when they
will provide the maximum amount of food and the altemate use of coastal flatlands and the mountainous
areas ensured that both deer and goats could be used for
food without endangering their reproductive cycles.
The rabbit, on the other hand, a gregarious animal characterized by a high reproduction rate but limited to a
narrower territory, was a complementary food resource
for times of greater nutritionaJ stress.
With the appearance of modern man carne the first
objects used for adornment. Burials and remains recovered at sites inhabited by men from the Aurignacian
pay testimony to the fact that hunters from Europe's
Upper Palaeolithic wore a variety of pearls, shells and
perfo rated teeth on their clothing, and in addition possessed sma ll sculptures, which together with collars and
other types of pendants, contributed to their personal
ornamentation.
The amount of attention which must ha ve been paid
to these elements, theiJ· s tandardization and layout on
visible parts of the body seem to iJ1dicate a function
linked to commwúcation, capable of facilitating identification of the roles played by different individuals or
sexes and their group identity. A predilection for shells
or teeth of certain animals and of certain shapes, like the
representation of anirnaJs and signs of artwork, demonstratc the existence of symboüsm. Art and adonunent
ca rne about at practically the same time and corúinn
ea rly man's capacity for develo ping a system of
communication which, owing to its widespread geographical distribution, must have had an adaptive
character, linked to the maintenance of the necessary
social networks guaranteeing survival of PaJaeolithic
groups in a sparsely populated habita t.
37
[page-n-38]
Double points and
monobevetled javelins
with decorated bases, in
bone and antier, from the
Parpalló cave. SolutreanGrilvettian bone industry:
between17,000 and 16,000
ye~~rs nr. Length of largest
píece 1O.Scm.
t>
Sílex tools from the
Parpalló cave. Scrapers,
pieces wilh abrupt and
over-elevated retouching
and denticulate nakes
from the Lower
Magdale1úan: between
16,000 and 14,000 years BP.
Length of largest piece
3.7cm.
t>
Bone needles, decorated
antier and bone s hafts
from the Parpall6 cave.
Uppcr Magdalenian bone
industry: between 14,000
a nd 10,500 years m•.
Length of largest piece
7.9cm.
38
[page-n-39]
39
[page-n-40]
Silex tools from the Parpalló cave.
Scrapers, burins and backed Oakes
from the Upper Magdalenian: between
14,000 and 10,500 years Br>.
Length of largest piece 3.7cm.
1
Well-developed harpoons with rounded
barbs, double point and bevelled
javeli11s in antier and bone, from the
ParpaUó cave.
Upper Magdalenian bone indus try:
between 14,000 and 10,500 years bp.
Length of largest piece 9.1cm.
40
[page-n-41]
Oenticulate-edged sílex laurel leaf from the Volcán cave
in Faro (Cullera).
Upper Solutrean: between 17,000 and 16,000 years BP.
Length 5.5cm.
Perforated bone staff from the Volcéln cave in Faro (Cullera).
Magdalen ian bone industry: betwccn 15,000 and 10,000 years BP.
Leng th 24.0cm.
41
[page-n-42]
Silex and bone tools from
the Senda Vedada rock
shel te r (Sumadlrcer).
Scrapers, burins, backed
flakes and a javelin point
fragment from the
Magdalenian: between
15,000 and 10,500 years BP.
Length of javelin point:
6.9cm.
Perforated Pecteu jncobeus sheJis with
remains of ochre from the Parpalló cave,
possibly used as colour palettes.
Upper Palaeolithic: between
25,000 and 10,500 years nr.
Lengths 10.0, 10.5 and 10.7cm.
42
[page-n-43]
Personal adomments from the ParpaUó cave.
s
Dilierent types of sheU and teeth used as
pendants or to form a necklace.
Upper Palaeolithk: between 25,000 and 10,500
years ar. Length of largest piece 7.3cm.
43
[page-n-44]
[page-n-45]
Decorated limes tone plaque
from the Parpalló cave.
Tree-shape painted in red
and separa te, superimposed
straight lines.
Upper Magdalenian: between
14,000 a.n d 10,000 years er.
Size: 10.9 x 6.6cm.
Room N preseufs file birlh of nrf in lile Vnleucinu regiou,
offering n represeufnlive snmple of lile nrlislic discoveries fromthe Pnrpn/16
cave of Gmrdifl, wlrere sto11e plaques were eugmved nud pniuted /lrroughoullhe Upper Pfllneolithic.
These exlribils summflrize the euolufiou of teclmiques mrd the developmeut of both nuimnlmrd sigu
molifs, coveriug more flum 15,000 yenrs. The Pflrpn/16 cave is 1111 essenlinl refereuce poiuf for
Europenu prehisloric nrf.
IV. PALAEOLITHIC ART:
ANIMALS ANO SIGNS
Throughout the 25,000 years of the Upper Palaeolithic culture, European hunters and food gatherers produced diverse types of artistic manifestations. Of note
among these were the artistic creations drawn and
painted on cave walls and the faces of rock overhangs
and shelters, and also on portable flat slabs of stone, on
which animals are associated with signs in a strongly
symbolic display. This initial art created by man coincides with the appearance of modern roan, marking yet
another milestone in the evolutionary process of the
species.
Various continents ha ve provided evidence of palaeolithic art, although Europe, particularly its westernmost regions, has the largest concentration of prehistoric sites where artwork has been found. Technical,
stylistic and thematic characteristics enable us to define
an evolutionary cycle whose origins go back to the
Aurignacian and whose endpoint comes at the start of
the Holocene.
The Parpalló cave near Gandia, as we have mentioned before, covers the largest part of the U pper Palaeolithic, from the Gravettian to the Magdalenian. The
fifteen millennia to which its 5,612 stone plaques can be
dated provide a surnmary of the evolution of techniques
and themes, and because they refer to stratified and industrial sequences they enables us to serialize European
palaeolithic art and assign dates of manufacture which
are much more precise than stylistic methods.
The plaques are decorated using graffito or painting,
ora combination of these tecl1niques. Graffito was done
using silex instruments, apparently without a sketch
being performed before the actual drawing. Painting,
which is truly exceptional in portable Palaeolithic art,
offers examples of both plain colours and linear patterns, using natural mineral colorants such as hematites
and ochres.
In surnmary, two large temporal groups can be distinguished at the Parpalló cave: an ancient period,
45
[page-n-46]
PREHJSTORY MUSEUM
encompassing stages of the Soluh·ean, and another
more rece.nt period induding certain moments of the
Magdalenian. In the earliest times, graffito tecluüques
were simple lines, double lli1e.s and multiple lines, with
painting of great importance; animal figw-ation is somewhat out of proportion, perspectives are archaic, and
signs are very rudimentary. As of the Middle Solutrean
the first structured signs being to appear, with an abundance of rectangular and reticulated themes; at the same
time, we can see zoomorphic shapes in whicl1 disproportions are attenuated and for the first time there are
signs of attention to detail, such as mottled skin and
volumes in sorne scenes.
At the beginning of the Magdalenian, paints disappear ÍJ1 ru1imal drawings and engraving techniques
begin to d1ange, giving rise to simple but deep U11es ru1d
the practica! disappearance of aU other types of lines.
Animals are often represented using one single profile,
with only the front Leg being shown, and signs become
more complicated and are frequently combined on one
single plaque. At the end of the Magdalenian figures
acqu.ire a certain degree of perfection both in proportion
ru1d in perspective, with more attention being given to
anatomical details-mouths, lips, eyes-, signs show
more preference for geomeh·ics and there is a tendency
to make use of tl1e en tire plaque.
In gene1·al, Pal aeolitllic art offers an important lineup of animals, ru1 appreciable number of signs, with
only very rare attention being paid to the hum
appearances being put in by wild boars, foxes, lynxes, a
few canines of tmce.rtain ídentity, a partridge and a
member of the duck family. We should bear in mil1d
that the dish"ibution of certain species is subject to climatic imperatives, whkh therefore limits the themes
used in art in Spaill's Mediterranean region, where
there were no mammoths, rhinoceroses or bisons or
large cats. The signs show ru1 evolution featuring two
irnportrult moments: one characterized by the
predominance of rectangular themes, pertaining to the
Solutrean, and ru1othe.r, the Magdalenian, il1 which
mamtfacturil1g is complicated by the combiJ1ation of
ladder-like shapes, bands of lines cut in paraUel and
bands fonned by littJe crosses in parallel lines. As for the
46
htunan figure, tl1ere are only margil1al refe.rences in the
art found at the Parpalló cave and it is so simplified as
to lie on the limits of the identifiable.
Independently of the meaning the.se creations may
have had for their creators, Pa1aeolithic art can be valued il1 accordance witl1 its themes and the role it may
ha ve played dependil1g on hw1ting societies.In the present case, as stated abo ve, themes are reduced Íll essence
to anilnals and signs. The former coincide with the herbivores most frequently used as sources of food, yet the
way they are represented is not llilked to hunting
scenes, their surrotmdi11gs or theü· group behaviom~
and can be inte.rpreted as havil1g a symbolic value. The
signs, showing a repetition of themes, associated ideas
and positions within rock shelter animal groups, also
il1dicate the existence of definite mies of expression.
Conceming the role of such ru"t, tl1e chru1ges taking
place in Upper PaJaeolithic sodeties had theiJ· ilnpact on
the function of rut, as ru·twork prior to 18,000 years befare the present cru1 be differentiated from la ter work as
of the Upper Solutrean. In the first period there are few
stylistic or tl1ematic features when compared to other
regions of western Europe. The location of artistic fil1ds
te.nds to be li1 the higher parts of caves, perhaps functioning as a meru1s of communication betvveen highly
mobile groups at times of low population levels. The
representations, easily discernible and usil1g themes of a
wuve.rsal character, would tend to favour contact between groups with well-knit social networks.
During the end of the Solutrean and above all i.J1 the
Lower Magdalenian period, coinciding with times of
maximlml clli11atic rigour, Ew-opeaJ1 Palaeolithic art
shows a process of regionalization affectíng both the
themes of artwork, using signs which are specific to
eaeh separa te territory, and the style of the works, evincing a strong relation between representational modes
and territorial wuts. It is at this time that the strongest
trend can be observed towards locating waU paintings
in areas well removed from tl1e light and from what
look like living quarters. This seems to il1dicate that art
played a cohesive role within the group executing it,
combinmg the h·ansmission of infonnation with the establishment of group identity bonds, and coi.J1cidiJ1g
with the development of closed social networks composed of huntu1g groups movil1g over short-radius
territories.
[page-n-47]
Derorated limestone plaque
from the Parpalló cave. Doe
painted
in
black,
superimposed with two
inciscd
equine figures,
parti11lly re-using the original
represcntation.
Lower
Solutrcn n: between 21,000
nnd 19,000 ye<~rs m•.Size: 19.1
x 12.9cm.
Dccorillcd limestone plaque from
!he PMpll ll ó cave. Doe incised with
si mpl e lines. Midd le Solutrcan:
between 19,000 11nd 17,000 years Bl'.
Size: 10.5 x 6.5cm.
47
[page-n-48]
Decorated Jimes tone plaque from the rarpalló cave. Doe ou tline incised with simple Jines and filled in
w ith pClraUel lines. Outside the fig ure a re parallelli nes articulated with the infilllines. Upper St~lutrea n:
between 17,000 11 nd 16,000 years Br. Size: 10.5 x 12.2cm.
48
[page-n-49]
Decorated limestone plaque from the Parpa lló cave, showi ng a doe with two fawns und er her
legs, incised with multiple lines, and a superimposed, single-line equine figu re. SolutreanGravettian 1: between 17,000 and 16,000 years ur. Size: 8.8 x 4.2cm.
Decorated limesto11e plaque from
the Parpalló cave, showing a
caprine figure, repeated, a11d a 11011naluralistic infill forming a
gridwork; over the animal's
shoulder is a rectangular sign.
Upper Solutrea n: between 17,000
and 16,000 years or.
Size: 8.3 x 5.9cm.
49
[page-n-50]
Decorilted limestone plaque from the Parp.1lló
Cilvc, s howing an equine ñgure painted in red,
with lllilll\! partialJy scraped off and band of s hort
paintcd strokes. Solutrean·Gravettian lll: between
17,000 a nd 16,000 years bp. Size: 37.5 x 27.lcm.
so
[page-n-51]
Decorated limestone pl¡¡que from the PClrpalló
c¡¡ve, showing superimposed bovi nes incised
w ith compo und lines ¡¡nd an eqlúne e ng raved
with simple line. Lower Magda lenian: between
16,000 and 14,000 years bp. Size: 7.9 x 5.6cm.
51
[page-n-52]
[page-n-53]
<]
Limestone plaque decorated with
engraved geometric motifs
from the Cocina cave (Dos Aguas).
Geometric Epipalaeolithic:
approximately 7,000 years BP.
Length: 7.2cm.
Room V co11tnills i11dustrinl tmd nrtistic nrtifncts from !he
lnst remni11i11g lw11fillg societies /endi11g up lo /he Ho/oce11e or modem nge,
from 10,000 lo 7,000 yenrs before /he prese111. Tire mnlerinls slrow11 Itere were rmenrllred in /he
Mnllneles cnve i11 Bnrx, 1/re Untos cave i11 A11dilln, nud nbove n/1, /he Cociun cave iu Dos Aguas,
where n series of smn/1 plaques e11gmved willr geomelric molifs were discovered.
V. THE MESOLITHIC:
THE LAST HUNTERS
The end of the Palaeolithic, leading up to the
Recent of Holocene age, did not bring about the end of
hunting societies. From 10,000 to 7,000 years before the
present, up until the time of the first agricultura!
sodeties along the western Mediterranean, the way of
life continued to consist of traditíonal activities of
hunting and gathering. During this period temperatures increased abruptly, producing a thermal maximum about 7,000 years ago which was higher than
today, bringing about a rapid recession of the glaciers
and the spread of the forests, as well as a pronow1eed
rise in the sea leve!, producing the flooding of the
coastline.
This is the period that corresponds to the last of the
great hru1ters of the Stone Age, and we call it the
Mesolithic or the EpipaJaeolithic. The concept of the
Epipalaeolithic is used to express continuity with the
techniques and economy of the Palaeolithic, as is the
case in the Valendan region. The Mesolithic, on the
other hand, has a chronological meaning, referring to
the intennediate stage between the Palaeolithic and
the Neolithic, or New Stone Age, which also has an
economic meaning in that it can be applied to groups
of hm1ters who initiated the transition to food
production techniques in areas such as the Near East.
Testimonies of the last hm1ters in thi.s region can be
grouped into two cultural complexes, known as the
Microlaminar Epipalaeolithic and the Geometric
Epipalaeolithic. Material examp1es corresponding to
these two phases of development have been found in
the MaUaetes cave in Barx, and the Cocina cave in Dos
Aguas, respectively. Their names were derived from
the type of points used for making arrows and
javelins. Microlaminar points were almost exclusively
used for small sílex points made from shards that
53
[page-n-54]
PREHISTORY MUSEUM
rarely exceeded 3 centimetres in length. Geometric
points, on the other hand, might have been formed
from small shards, but they were always geometric in
shape (trape.zoids, tríangles or segments of circles) and
were obtained using a special fracturing technique of
the laminar s upports.
lJ1 this phase the bow was certainly used, permittirtg precision shooting that was much greater than
ancient spear or arrow throwing. The microlithic
character of the industries, a teclmical feature which
was conuno11 to Holocene hunters, is linked to the
generalization of compom1d tools, as both arrows and
javelins are made up of varíous denticulated sílex
insertions in the same wooden shaft.
The Cocina cave (Dos Aguas, la Hoya de Buñol) is
the most representative site of the Geometric Epipalaeolithic period along the Mediterranean coastline
of the Iberian península, having provided an im-
portant amount of information on the clima te, scenery
and economic activities of the p eople who inhabited
this grotto between 8,000 and 5,000 years befare the
present. One of the most outstanding finds in this cave
WélS the artwork, including both portélble and mural
varieties, which has been preset·ved. This artwork
comprises él series of portable stone slélbs beélring
incised lines corresponding to él time immedlél tely
befare the élppearance of the first ceramic remains at
this site. Abstraction, linearity, geometrics and bilateral
symmetries are cleélrly shown in some examples, yet
their meaning remains a mystery. These examples of
portable art are complemented by a series of remains
of paintings of broken lines done in red ochre on the
walls of the cave, which were covered by layers of
sedimentary deposits. This artwork receives the name
of l inear-geometric art. All il1dicatations seem to point
to an artistic episode whose initial phase coincides
with the first impacts from the Neolithic age.
1
Sílex tools from the Cocina cave.
Scrapers, notched blades and trapeziums from the Coci na 1
phase. Geometric Epipalaeolithic: between 8,000 a nd 7,500
years ar. Le ngth of largest piece: 4.8cm.
54
[page-n-55]
Silex tools from the Cocina cave.
Blades w ith signs of use, no tched blades,
microburins, trapeziums, tria ngles and
"Cocina"-type triangles fro m the Cocina U
phase. Geometric Epipalaeolithic:
between 7,500 and 7,000 years Br.
Le ngth of largest piece: 4.9cm.
1
Silex tools from the Covacha de Llatas cave (Andilla).
Blades with sig ns of use, notched blades, tra peziums,
triangles and do ubled-edged segme nts. Geometric
Epipalaeoli thic: between 7,000 a nd 6,500 years ar.
Length of l¡¡rgest piece: 3.8cm.
55
[page-n-56]
[page-n-57]
Globular-bodied ceramic jug with
elongated neck and cardial impressions
from the Co va de I'Or (Beniarrés).
Lower Neolithic: between 5,000 and 4,200
BC. Height: 28.3cm.
Room VI is dediroled lo lile firsl iullnbi/1111/s of lile regio11
sllowiug sig11s of crop-growi11g 1111d 1111i11ml lwsbmrdry. Tire birtll of
11gricrtllrtre is 11 plleiiO
IIrl!IIO of Medilerm11e11rr origi11 wlriclr is well docu11re11led i11 lllis 11re11 ns of
II
7,000 years before /he prese11/. 11 was n//Iris lime tlln/ rrew mnlerinls were i11/rodrrced, pnrlicrr fnrly
cemmics, rrew plmrls were growrr n11d nuimn/s were domes/icnled. Tlle mn/erinls ftrrrrislretf bytlle
Cova de I'Or i11 Be11inrrés nutf //re Snrsn cnve iu Bocnire11f reflec/ clmrrges in lifestyle, willr ncw
i11rplements in s/one flnke, polislretf sto11e, bone, nnd most pnrlicrrlllrly, /he pcrfectiorr of lile first
cemmic wnres decornted usi11g cnrdirrm s!rell impressions prior lo firiug.
VI. THE NEOLITHIC:
THE FIRST FARMERS
Tilling the soil to plant crops and breeding
domesticated animals is the natural way to obtain food
today, but these activities we1·e completely unknown
to men of the Palaeolithic and the Mesolithic. By adapting to this new way of life, human societies initiated a new stage of development which we now calJ
the Neolithic. This term origú1aUy had a chronological
and teclmological meaning, because the Stone Age
was separated into an old period, or Palaeolithic, and
another newer stage, the Neolithic, characterized by
the appearance of new tools made using polished
stone, a development which occurred in what is called
the Recent period in geological tenns. The word Neolithic today, however, has come to mean a period in
which man's econonúc activities changed primarily
from hunting and gathering to planting and harvesting and animal husbandry, bringú1g with it sedentary
populations, an increase in the number of human
groups, more complex social structures and new religious beliefs.
It was in the Near East, specifically in the area of
Syria and Palestine and in the foothills of the Zagros
Mountains in Iraq and Iran, where the fii"st steps towards the production of food from the soil were made
in the tenth and eleventh milleruúa before Christ. The
favourable biogeograplúcal conditions of tlús region,
with an abundance of vegetable and a1úmal resources
which were easily exploitable and potentially tamable,
in addition to the intensification of food gathering and
storage practices, propitiated man's settlement in
villages comprising groups of mesolithic or epipalaeolithic hw1ters and the itútial development of agricultura! and livestock-raising economies.
The incorporation on the Iberian peninsula of this
new lifestyle, based on wheat and ba1·Iey growing and
the rearing of goats and sheep, formed part of a pro-
57
[page-n-58]
PREIIISTORY MUSEUM
cess that extended throughout coastal areas of the
Mediterranean, from east to west, throughout the sixth
millennium. [n the region of Valencia, approximately
5,000 years befare Christ, there are numerous archaeological sites, the majority of which are caves, showing
a material cu ltural including ceramic recipients, sílex
axes, bone spoons and rings, bracelets and axes of
poüshed stone, among many other elements which
were formerly unknown, plus the remains of cultivated cereals and domestic anin1als. These are the
testimonies of the first farming commwuties wluch
shared the territory with the last groups of huntergatherers, albeit for a relatively short time.
Pottery is one of the new arrivals in the Neolithic.
The oldest ceramics in the Mediterranean zone present
a special type of decoration placed on U1e objects
before they were fired using mainly one type of
instrument, the edge of the Cardium edule shell, giving
rise to the na me of cardial ceramics. The distribution of
these ceramic wares along the coasts of the
Mediterranean, corresponding to the time of impressed pottery cultures, together with the settlement
of the islands and the gradual influx of Neolithic
lifestyles from east to west, reinforce the concept of the
Mediterranean having always been an important
source of culture.
Thc study of decoration styles on ceramic wares
and of stratigraphic layers at archaeological sites are
ilie major references used for establishing the evolution of the Neolithic in the region of Valen cia. The
first stage, the Lower Neolithic, is characterized by the
predominance of cardial pottery and spans the fifth
millennium before Christ. The next period, called the
Middle Neolithic, is associated with the disappearance
of cardial ornamentation, which was replaced by incised, channelled and printed decorations made using
a variety of instruments. This style, although it was
known in the former period, became donúnant at Uús
time. The fi nal stage, or Upper Neolithic, started in the
fourth millennium befare Christ, and is marked primarily by scratchwork decorations, although ceramic
production soon became dominated by undecorated
vases, giving rise toa renovation in style that served as
a prelude to the next stage, ca lled the Aeneolithic or
"bronze and stone" age.
58
New domestic and artisan production activities
produced changes in traditional stone flake tecllniques, and experimentation began to occur. AlU1ough
the tradition was still of an eminently laminar character, carefully selected cores were now extracted and
appropriately prepared to form blades with flakes
which were much longer than they were wide. They
were used to make implements and weapons for daily
use, particularly knives, hole punches, drills and
scythe and javelin blades. Bone manufacturing, another traditional industry, also provided all kinds of
utensils required for daily activities, such as spoons,
tu bes, hole punches, needles, s patulas, clusels, planers,
plus other objects such as rings, pendants, hairpins,
and beads for collars, allused for personal adornment.
Lastly, stone polishing technology represented a new
step forwa rd in the development of prehistoric stone
industries, with new techniques becoming fully generalized throughout the Neolithic. Polished stone was
used above all for U1e manufacture of axes and adzes,
tools which were closely related to forest clearing
activities and woodworking, in addition to objects of
personal adornment, represented by pendants, bead
collars and bracelets.
Economic activities are basic to a specific culture,
and this is why Neolithic communities were qualitatively different from those of the Palaeoliiliic. Neolithic
man was a farmer, living in a more or less settled
community, and he began to leavc increasing vestiges
of his presence in the territories in which he lived and
worked. The main testimonies to the practice of agriculture are the remains of ca rbonized seeds found at
archaeological sites. Pollen analyses are also used to
indicate the existence of crops and the tilling of new
soil for agricultura] use. At the Cova de l'Or in Beniarrés, for example, an abundance of carb01uzed seeds
were found, revealing the cultivation of various types
of wheat, such as scandula, a small variety of spelt,
and common wheat, and also of various types of early
barley. Wheat and barley were unknown to iliis territory before this time, and therefore these cereals must
have been introduced from abroad.
The remains of animals, mostly leftovers from
anima ls used as food, reveal the importance of
[page-n-59]
Polished s tone axeheads from the Sarsa cave (Bocairent).
Neolithic: between 5,000 a11d 3,000 ar. Length of largest piece: 12.8cm.
domestic animals, paJ'ticularly goats and sheep, as
welJ as the cow, pig and dog. In the ovine and caprine
families, sheep were the most common animals, and it
seems that they were mainly used for the obtention of
meat rather than núlk or wool, and the same use was
made of cows and swine. And just Like wheat and
barley, the agriotypes, or "wild" ancestral forms, of
modern-day sheep and goats did not exist in this
region as in the rest of Europe, so once again they must
have been introduced in their domesticated forms
during the neolithization process.
Abundant remaü1s of deer and rabbits, and to a
lesser extent those of roebucks, mountain goats, wild
boar, horses and aurochs, with a few birds and reptiles
too, attest to the importance of hunting activities for
the supply of furs, leather and antlers, in addition to
meat. The gathering of wild fruits and honey is documented in certain rock-shelter or cave paintings, although direct evidence through physical remains is
limited to acorn eating. Fishing was important in sites
near the coast, such as the Cendres cave in Moraira,
where the remains of monkfish, porgy, pandora, gilthead, sea bass, and others have been found, in
addition to vestiges signifying that much use was
made of sea mollusks, such as limpets and winkles.
Apart from providing information on amb ient cond itions, sedimentology, palynology, or the study of
fossilized pollen and plant spores, and antlU'acology
coincide in reflecting the progressive ü1fluence of maJl
on the environment during the Neolitlüc age. Agriculture and farming caused important changes in man's
relation to his surroundings. Whereas Palaeolithic and
Mesolithic populations used the forest as a means of
s ubsistence, using its resources in a controlled or ]imited fashion, crop-growing and animal grazing produced a situation that was to become progressively
more aggressive with respect to the environment,
59
[page-n-60]
Silex tools
from the Cova de I'Or.
Trapeziums and
triangles, drills and
polished blades used
as scyl he teeth. Lower
Neolithic: between
5,000
and 4,200 or.
Length of largest piece:
6.9cm.
60
[page-n-61]
PREHISTORY MUSEUM
resu.lting in the creation of larger treeless spaces. It was
at this time that the felling of trees and slash-burning
techniques were unbridled and accompanied the
practice of agriculture and livestock rearing un ti! only
recently. In this way, mru1, sü1ce the NeoHtlúc, becru11e
an active agent in ecological degradation, üútiating a
course that has continued practically w1abated down
to the present time.
The Cova de l' Or (Beniarrés, el Comtat district) is
situated on the eastern spurs of the Benicadeli siena,
dominating the valley of the Alcoi, or Serpis, river.
Excavations done here have shown a stratigraphic
sequence that covers many of the developments of the
Neolithic. Very important ceramic collections were unearthed here, as well as utensils, arms and adornments
manufactmed in bone, silex, polished stone, shells and
other materials. As in other cases, carbonized grains of
wheat and barley were fow1d, dated using carbon-14
to 4,315 and 4,770 years BC. Interdisciplinary studies
performed at the site, mainly including sedimentologists, palynologists and anthracologists, have enabled the evolution of the clirnate ru1d scenery to be
recons tructed during the Yalendan Neolitlúc. Landscape is thought to have been comprised of a Mediterranean-type forest with thennophile undergrowth,
with an abundance of pines, kermes oaks or gall oaks
depending on local conditions at different stages, with
episodes of colder and drier weilther or hotter and
more hunúd conditions.
The Sarsa cave (Bocairent, la Vall d' Albaida
district) is located on the northwestern spurs of the
Serra Mariola. Materials having been recovered here
comprise a rich assembly showing that it was used as
a settlement Hke many other caves down wltil the end
of the Neolithic. It also served as a bw·ial site, with at
least seven individuals having been :inhumed here,
witl1 two buried together in a narrow crack in the
interior, separated from the inhabited zone. Together
with the osseous remains of these two hw11ans were a
vase with cardial decoration and some pieces of bone
and sílex, interpreted as mortuary offerings. These
burials indicate the existence of funera l rites in the
early Neolithic and prove that cave burial h·aditions in
the region of Valencia reach back as far as that time.
Polis hed stone bracelet from the Sarsa cave.
Lower Neolitluc: between 5,000 and 4,200 sr.
Diameter: lO.lcm.
61
[page-n-62]
Twin jug with impressed cardial
designs (rom ú1e Cova d e I'Or.
Lower Neol.ithic: between 5,000 and 4,200 ar.
Length: 14cm .
Small cask-shaped jug with impressed
combtooth designs from the Cova de I'Or.
Lower Neolilhic: between 5,000 and 4,200 BP.
Height: 8.8cm.
62
[page-n-63]
Globular-bodied ceramic jug
with neck and cardial impressions from
the Cova de l'Or. Lower Neolithic:
between 5,000 and 4,200 BP.
Height: 16.3cm.
Vase with impressed cardial decoration
from the Cova de l'Or.
Lower Neolithic: between 5,000 and 4,200 Br.
Height: 23.2cm.
63
[page-n-64]
[page-n-65]
Globular-bodied ceramic jug
with ncck ;md impressed combtooth
decor;¡tions from the Cova de I'Or.
Lower Neolithic:
between 5,000 0111d 4,200 Bl'.
Height: 22.4cm.
<1
Large cylindrical cernmic vase
with impressed cardíal designs
from the Cova de I'Or.
lower Neolithic: between 5,000 and 4,200 BP.
Height: 48.5cm.
Bone ring
from the Cova de l'Or.
Lower Neolithic:
between S,(XX) and 4,200 ar.
Diameter: 2.9cm.
65
[page-n-66]
Bone need les and punches
from the Cova de I'Or. Neolithic:
betwecn 5,000 and 3,000 BP.
Length of largesl piece: 12.2cm.
Bonespoons
from the Cova de l'Or. Lower Ncolithic:
between 5,000 and 4,200 Bl'.
Length of largest piece: 20.8cm.
[page-n-67]
Ornamental pieces from the
Cova de l'Or. Necklace beads
and pendants made
(ro m shell and hone.
Neolithic: between 5,000
and 3,000 BP. Length
o( largest piece: S.Ocm.
.;~> ·i. ,~~:~·:~~\,~;. ~.~~-·~· ......:',..:
.
~ :t~'·
•
\
J ~~ ,· .
r
'<
~
......'··.
•
··.¡'.·r!'t*
.
,.,1
•.
•
i
,
·
- .·
.
Sand stone hand mili
(ro m the Cova de l'Or.
Neolithic: between 5,000
and 3,000 sr.
Length: SOcm.
67
[page-n-68]
[page-n-69]
Fragment of ceramic vase with impressed
cardial decoration from the Cova de I'Or.
The central motif shows two figurines
with uplifted arms in ¡m attitude of prayer.
tower Neolithic: between 5,000 and 4,200 BP.
Height: 7.2cm.
Room VIl offers n selec/iou of posi-Pnlneolitlric nrl,
correspoudiug lo lile firsl form en; nud liveslock herders, nud lile /muliug
grortps sli/1 active ni lile stnrt of tfre Neoliflriznliou process. Tire selectioulrns been lnkeu from tfre
rack siJelters of Pln de Pelmcos iu Cnsle/1 de Cnstells, lile Snrgn iu Alcoi, tite Vnl//orln mviue iu
Tfrig, Alboctisser mrd Caves de Viuromti, lile Gnsnlln rnviue iu Ares del Maestral, mtd lile Arntin
caves iu Bicarp, nmoug olhers. In ndditiau lo pnrietnl or mr11·n/ nrl, 1/rere are exnmples of porlnble
nrt 011 ccmmic wnres foulld in lite Covn de I'Or iu Beninrrés nud tite Snrsn cnve in Bocnire11t.
Tltese hove been doled lo lile seveutlt millerwirtm befare lile preseul irt view of lile fnct tlrnl //rey
slrnre lile snme motifs nud probnbly lile snme symbolism ns lheir rock she/ter corwterpnrls.
VII. POST-PALAEOLITHIC ART
IMAGES ANO BELIEFS
New artistic CllTrents arise at the end of the
Palaeolithíc in the region of Valencia with so-called
Linear-Geometric Art, pertaining to more recent
epipalaeolitlúc stages and using incisions on small
stone slabs or plaques and paintings in red on tJ1e
walls of certain caves. Almost simultaneously, as of the
fifth uúllem1ium BC, at the outset of the Neolitlúc,
other artistic cycles begin to appear responding to the
name of Macroschematic Art, Levantine Art and Schematic Art. These are always paintings executed on the
walls of rock sheJ ters or overhangs, although they do
presenta striking similarity with the decorative motifs
used on sorne ceramic wares, providing a clue to their
chronology. In addítion to these artistic cycles, there
are other series of engravings on rock showing fusiform and geometric shapes with more imprecise
cuJtural and temporal references; they have also been
found in depressions excavated in rock, sometimes
joined by narrow cham1els.
Macroschem.atic Art can be found mainly in the
rock shelters of the districts of the Marina Alta, el
Comtat and 1 Alcoia, in the same territory formerly
'
occupied by farming and herding communities, and
whose religious concerns were clearly indicated in
their art, which is exclusive to Valencian lands. The
human figure is the dominant theme, shown in
various shapes and positions, such as with raised arms
and splayed fingers or in an attitude of prayer. Also
abundant are snake-like forms tipped with lines
looking like fingers, wlüch occasionally jut out from
concentric circles, along with other geometric motifs
wlüch are more difficult to interpret, always in large
sizes and in a dark red colour. The presence of the
same motifs on ceramic vases with cardial impressions
enables us to date these artistic manifestations to the
fifth millennium BC.
69
[page-n-70]
PREHlSTORY MUSEUM
These rock-shelter paintings and ceramic vases,
which in sorne cases rnus t have been religious
sanctuaries and cult objects, respective!y, hold the keys
to the new magico-religious ideas penetrating into
Valencian territories with the first groups of cropgrowers and during the s ubsequent process of
neolithization over the Mesolithic subs trata.
Levantine Art is characterized by pronounced
naturalism Íl1 its representations, al ways painted on
the walls of shallow rock s helters. Men, wornen,
anirnals and cornmonplace objects and hunting articles
are the principie themes that can be found either in
isolation or forming part of generalizcd scenes. Among
the latter are huntil1g scenes and sorne war scenes,
with processions and executions. Men are usually
armed with bow and arrow, and animals frequently
appear with arrow wow1ds. Women form part of dayto-day sccnes and others of possible religious conte11t.
Because it can be found superimposed on
macroschematic paintings in the rock shelters of La
Sarga Íl1 Alcoi and the Benialí ravine in Castell de
Cas tells, and in view of the similar motifs used on
ceramics found at the Cova de l'Or in Beniarrés,
Levantine Art in the region of Valencia can be dated to
the final s tages of the fifth millennium BC. It is
therefore part of the Neolithic chronology and helps us
to w1derstand the processes of cultural cl1ange that
began here as a consequence of the appearance of
agriculture and livestock breeding.
Schematic Art consists of a highly elabora te forrn of
artistic manifestation from the conceptual viewpomt
using the coloUI red and only exceptionally the colour
black to depict on the walls of shallow rock shelters
either schematic human figures or geometric motifs
which are always simple Íl1 s hape. Anthropomorphic
shapes are usually reduced to simple stick figures to
indicatc the trunk, occasionally prolonged to indicate
the head or the sexual organ in males. Zoomorphic
figures consist of a horizonta l line for the body and
s tick legs, with the occasional addition of horns
identifying certaÍ11 species. Geometric motiis axe more
abundant, with ru1 axray of bars, points and circles.
Also characteristic of this kind of art are astral motifs
and representations of idols, a clear expression of the
symbolic character of this kind of art which was begun
in the fifth millennium BC and reached its moment of
maximum development coinciding with the multiple
burial epoch of the Aeneolithic, or Copper Age.
Cask-shaped vase with impressed
cardial decoration from the Cova de l'Or.
Between the ring-shaped handles is an
anthropomorphic "X"-shnped moti f.
Lower Neolithic: between 5,000 and 4,200 BP.
Height: 7.4 cm.
70
[page-n-71]
Fragment of ceramic vase
with impressed combtooth decoration
from the Cova de I'Or. Figurative
head and upper portion
of horned goa t. Lower Neolithic:
between 4,500 and 4,000 Br.
Heigh t: 10.3cm.
Fragment of ceramic vase
with incised decoration
from the Cova de I'Or,
showing se hematíe d rawi ng
o( a deer and part
of two others underneath.
Upper Neolithic:
between 3,500 and 3,000 Br.
Height: 5.6cm.
71
[page-n-72]
[page-n-73]
<1
Antier ido! with eye engravings
from Ereta del Pedregal (Navarrés).
Possible representation of the "Mother Goddess".
Aeneolithic: Approximately 2,500 BP.
Length: l8.0an.
Room vm iulroduces us to more complex l111mnu
groupiugs nurl tlreir cnve sepulclrres of tire Aeueolillric, or Copper Age. Tire
geuemlizntiou of ngricrtllurnllife briugs nbout tite prolifernliou of se/1/emeuts 11ext lo croplnurls,
suc/r ns Eretn riel Pedregal iu Nnvnrrés, witlt sequeuces tlrnl eucompnss tire eulire 3rrl millet111i1mr
befare Cl1risl, llre periorl rluriug wlric/r tire first copper implemeuts nppenr. Fu11ernl riles ncquire
mnjor importn11ce, nurl nnturnl caves nre usetl ns collective 11ecropolises, suclt ns tite Pnstom cnve
in Alcoi, wlrere flmemry offerillgs nud religious objects n11rl irlols wcre plncerluext lo borlies of llre
decensed. Of specinl interesl nre /he trepnnnted skulls found in tlris snme cnw. The fiun/ pnrt of t/1e
periorl is kuown for its cnmpnuiform, or be/1-slmperl, cernmics nurl the c/mrncterislic nrticles
iuc/uderl i11 funeral n11tl werlrli11g offeriugs. The Covn rlels Gnls ;, Alzirn provirletl nbuurlm11
mnterinls, n11d o//ter importn11/ siles from this period nre tite P1111lnl settlemeut over the
Cnslellnrdn rnviue iu Llfrin, the Casi/e Slope cnve i11 Chiva, Jite Cnm( Reinl ti'Alncnllt cnve in
Albnitln, tl1e Bnrrnuc del Cnslelld cnw i11 Cnrrícoln, nud the Pedrera d wsm iu Beuicu/1, nmoug
oll1ers.
VIII. THE AENEOLITHIC:
THE COPPER AGE
Agriculture and livestock rearing leads to a life of
fixed abodes. Farming communities settle near their
croplands, erecting l1ouses and providing social structures which are progressively more complex, while
making man's presence in the territory much more
noticeable. It is a process which was initiated in the
Neolithic and became more intensive at this time,
particularly as of the middle of the 3rd miUennium Be,
when tl1e first metal instruments appear. These tools
were made of copper, giving their name to the new
period: the Aeneolithic or Cop per Age. Also
characteristic of the age is the use of natural caves in
the vicinity as large-scale necropolises, reflecting pertnanent settlements in the area, and changing sociaJ
relations and religious ideas.
Newly-founded settlements seek proximity to
watercourses. In general, the only remains of these
settlements having been found are tlle structures
which were excavated in the subsoil: round-walled
silos for storing cereals, and moats in V-shapes cut into
the ground, interpretable as defensive or drainage
structures for nearby croplands. Huts were made of
wattle and daub and have therefore Ieft very few
remains. These settlements were distributed over the
en tire Valencian region, the most outstanding of which
are Jovades in Cocentaina, Niuet in Alquería d' Asnar,
Atareó and Beniprí in Belgida, Arenal de la Costa in
Ontinyent, Macolla in Villena and Vil·la Filomena in
Vila-real.
Nevertheless, Ereta del Pedregal (Navanés, La
Cana.l de Navarrés district) is the best known example
of a Copper Age settlement. Discovered in the 19th
century by]. Vilanova y Piera, it is located in a marshy
area known as La Marjal, in whlch the groundwater
73
[page-n-74]
PREHJSTORY MUSEUM
table reaches the foundations of the settlement. During
the initial phase of occupation, towards the end of the
Neolithic and the beginning of the Aeneolithic, constructions were wattle and daub huts on stone
fotmdations. Later, coindding with the appearance of
metal tools during the Mid-Aeneolithic ru1d the
Campruillorm horizon, stone was used to erect socles
or plinths on which the walls were then erected.
Archaeological materials found at this site show
that everyd ay life in the farming communities
revolved around food preparation, ceramic manufacturing, fabric and basket weaving, and bone and silex
too! manufacturing, plus the production of adornments and religious objects whicl1 would la ter be used
as funeral offerings. As new farm lands were ploughed,
the forests receded, and expanses of croplands extended outwards from eacl1 settlement, with mOLmtain
lands beiJ1g used as pastures for aniJnal grazing. The
most important fann aniJnals were sheep and goats,
but hunting still conserved its importance as a means
of protecting crops against large herbivores, for
contributing to the food supply and providiJ1g complementary materials sucl1 as furs and antlers.
During the Aeneolithic, silex instruments carne up
against a strong competitor in the form of copper tools.
The arrival of this new material forced mru1ufacturers
of sílex implements to d evelop and perfect their tecl1niques, and ktúves and arrow points began to rival
their metal counterparts. The abundance of arrowheads found iJ1 settlements and funeral offeru1gs point
to the importance of the bow and arrow as a personal
weapon, although they may also indicate unrest and
armed conflict between groups. Silex-tipped arrows
were iJútially lozenge shaped or bore small side stubs
at the begiJming of the period, whereas peduncle
shapes with wings dommated at the end of the period.
The oldest evidence of copper making on the
lberian petúnsula corresponds to the first half of the
3rd millem1ium BC. The pioneers were the centres of
the Millares culture in the southeast and on the lower
course of the Tagus river on the Atlantic coast. At Ereta
del Pedregal the appearance of the first metal objects
corresponds to the height of the Aeneolithic, iJ1 the
second half of the 3rd millennium BC. These new
74
objects were punches, arrowheads, axes ru1d a few copper slag fragments, with minimtm1 amow1ts of other
elements such as arsetúc, whicl1 were only impurities
inherent to the metal used for fow1dry work, ie, they
were not alloys of any killd.
Ideas about life and death showed signs of evolution among farnúng corrunwúties. A new funeral
rite indicated that religious beliefs had cl1anged, and ÍJ1
most of western Euro pe, the dead were now placed m
megalitlúc chambers. In the Valencian region, megalithic tombs were substituted by natural caves, as in
the case of the Pastora cave (Alcoi, 1 Alcoia district),
'
wlücl1 has provided over seventy-five iJ1dividuals
whose remains had been grouped together to form
funeral packages following de-boning, with offerings
and idols or images being left by their sides, indicating
some sort of belief in an afterlife. The idols buried with
the dead, beruing a central eye motive accompatúed by
bands of curved fu1es fonning a facial tatoo and an
indication of gender, have been encotu\tered aU over
the Iberian Pe1únsula and can be identified with the
Mother Goddess cult.
The sheer number of burials in some caves indicated that they were used as necropolises for a nearby
settlement over a long period of time. The most
irnportant of these are the Llometes cave of Alcoi,
providing over fifty adult individuals; the Barcella
cave of Torre de les Ma.;ru1es, thirty; the Cami Reial
d' Akant cave m Albaida, nineteen; the Lechuzas cave
in Villena, over eighteen. In various skulls found in the
Pastora cave the practice of trepanation or intentional
perforation was evidenced, and no signs of pathological alterations can be appredated to justify an
operation of tlús kind. Experts are therefore of the
opiJúon that these were ritual or empirical practices
with no real therapeutic effect. The survival of some of
these individuals was demonsh·ated in three cases
owiJ1g to signs of bone regeneration, whereas others
can be classified as posthumous trepanations.
At the end of fue Aeneolitlúc one particular type of
ceranúc ware was distributed throughout a lru·ge part
of Europe, called the Campaniform Vase. It was present in settlements and above all in burials. The name
campaniform is a description of the vase's profile in
[page-n-75]
Di verse types of sílex arrowhead from Ereta d el Pedregé\1.
Aeneoljthic: between 2,700 and 2,200 BP. Length of largest piece: 6.5cm.
the shape of a bell or tulip. They are fine-paste ceramk
wares fired at high temperatures with surfaces decorated with the impression of a comb or using incised
lines, fonning horizontal bands, triangles and gridworks. Pots, pans and goblets completed the repertoire of forms. Their wide diffusion, and the association of the Campaniform Vase witl1 tl1e generalization
of metal in funeral offerings, were at first interpreted
as proof of the existence of a p rospecting and metalmaking settlement with excellent ceramists and
metallurgists, moving throughout Europe in the
second half of the 3rd millennium BC. At present,
however, tlús explanation has given way to the existence of campaniform elements over such a large territory due to a growing desire for social and cere-
mon ial preshge in funeral traditions.
The term Campaniform Horizon is used to highlight the new developments of the last two centuries of
the 3rd millennium BC and the beginning of the 2nd.
Coincidil1g with campanjfonn ceramics a new modeJ
of settlement began to consolida te itself: villagers
began to prefer high mountain peaks, although huts
and silos were stiJI maintained on the lowlands.
El Puntal over the Castellarda Ravine (Uíria, el
Camp de Túria district) is an example of a new
Aeneolithic village occupying the sununit of a mowltain and part of its slopes. Documented structures
indicate there was a waU, a circular tower at the
highest point, and independent dweUings of an oval
75
[page-n-76]
Silex tools from Ereta del Pedregal. Scrapers, dagger blade fragment and large sickle teeth. Aeneolithic:
between 2,700 and 2,200 BP. Length of largest piece: 17.0oJ1.
shape with stone foundations and socles and mud
brick walls. In the interior of these brick huts, large
sized stones laid horizontally and vertically marked
the bases for posts that held up the roofs. Signs of
material culture testify to manufacturi..ng activities
such as ceranúcs and weaving, sílex working, with the
production of numerous arrowheads, and the prese.nce
of campanifonn ceramics. All this situates this
mow1tain village in the Full Aeneolithic and the
Campaniform horizon.
Fw1eral rites remained the same as lútherto, with
caves being used as burial sites, as indicated by the
76
Cova dels Ga ts in Alzira and the Pedrera chasm in
Po.linya-Benicull, but the number of inhtunations progressively decreases, with some burials taking place in
silos, such as those discovered at the settle.ment of
l' Atareó in Belgida. Funeral offeri..ngs and ex-votos
show that tl1e most representative articles were
daggers witl1 tongues for insertion in the handle,
arrowheads or spearheads and punches, al! three i11
copper; also of note are bone buttons with V-shaped
perforations and stone armplates for archers. Sílex
working sparks up for one last time with the presence
of noteworthy knife-blades and arrowheads.
[page-n-77]
Ant copper axeheads
from Ereta del Pedregal.
Aeneolithic: approximately 2,200 or.
Lengths: 15.0, 8.6 and 13.2cm.
Omaments from funera l
offeri ngs fou nd
at the Pastora cave (Alcoil.
S to ne and bone collar beads
and pendants, a nd 11 long
"Pastora"-type bone needle.
Aeneolithic: between
2,500 and 2,200 Br.
Length of largest piece: 16.0cm.
77
[page-n-78]
Fl¡¡ttened bone needles from ftmerill offerings
in the Pilsloril cave. Aeneolithic: between 2,500 and 2,200 BP.
Leng ths: 22.0, 17.2 and 15.7cm.
Bone idols with eye engravings and
ilnthropomorphic shapcs from the Pastoril
cave. Aeneolithic: betwcen 2,700 and 2,200 BP.
Length of largesl piece: 17.6cm.
78
[page-n-79]
Trepa nated cmnium, with signs of bone
regenem tion, from the P<1stora cave.
Aeneolilhic: approximately 2,500 ur.
Length: 19.0cm.
Silex d¡¡gger point showi ng base work for
handle insertion. Large silex plaque with
worked edge. Both from the Castle slope
cave in Chiva. Funeral offering pieces.
Aeneolithic: between 2,700 and 2,200 Br.
Lengths: 13.0 and 14.3cm.
79
[page-n-80]
Ceramic pot with impressed decoration from Camí de 1' Algofils (Belgida).
Campa1úiorm hori zon: between 2,200 and 2,000 er.
Height: lO.Ocm. Mouth dia.meter: 26.0cm.
Campaniform jug, bowls and vases with various types of decoration, from the Cova deis Gats (Aizira). Ceramic funeral offering ware.
CampaniJorm horizon: between 2,200 and 1,800 BP.
Height of largest vase: l2.0cm. Mouth diameter: 20.3cm.
80
[page-n-81]
Funeral offering objects from the Sima de la Pedrera (Benicull-Polinya de Xúquer) and Cova deis Gats CAlu ra).
Copper Palmela-t)'pe arrowhead, tongued dagger blade and punches; polished stone adze and archer's armplate;
sílex arrowheads; bone buttons with V-shaped perforations; collar beads and Oattened needle in bone.
Campaniform horizon: between 2,200 and 1,800 DI'.
Height of dagger: 14.5cm.
81
[page-n-82]
[page-n-83]
Aat copper <~xeheads
from Mils de Menen te (Alcoi)
and La Liorna de Be txi (Paterna).
Valencian Bronze culture:
between 1,800 and 1,400 BP.
Length of s mallest piece: 8.8cm.
Room IX fociiSt'S 011 !he Vnle11cin11 Bro11ze Age culture
begirmi11g i11 !he 2ud milleuui11m nc nud lnsliug nbo11t teu ceuturies.
Duri11g tlris time, IIL'W settlemeuts tvere fowrded, willr mo1111lniu-top sites sti/1 beiug i11linbittd
t/rro,glrolll tire regio11. Tlie use of metal becnme geuernlized. Midway tlrrouglr tire period tlie 11se
of brorru, 1111 alloy of cop¡Jer aud tiu, beca me ruidesprend. Tire materinls 011 display lrere correspoud
lo enrly excavalious 511clr ns Mns de Meueute iu Alcoi, Moln Alta de Serel/es iu Alcoi (providiug
a uotable col/ectiou of formdry moulds), nrrd Mrmlnrryetn de Cnbrern ;, Vednt de Torrerrt. Also
slrowu are 11rnlerinls gntliered from receut exarvntio11 cnmpiligus 1111dertnkeu ni L/omn de Betxí i11
Pntemn aud tire M1111tnuyn Assolndn i11 Alz.im, iu ndditio11 lo miscellnueous objects from otlrer
selllemeuts s11cli ns lnrge stomge jnrs from Eretn del Cnstellnr i11 Vilnfrnrrcn. Si11ce SOIIIliem
Vnleucinlllnrrds pertniued lo tlie El Argnr C
llll11re, tire IIIIISCIIIII lms n represeutative collectioll of
oújects tnkeu from sites iu Murcia nrrd Almerfn. Metnllurgy tec/miques ni tire e11d of tlie Bro11zc
Age are slrowu i11 compilrisoll lo n deposit J01111d nt tlie Huerln de Arriba sile;, B11rgos, IIOrlllem
SfX1iu.
IX. THE BRONZE AGE:
THE DIVERSITY OF CULTURES
As of the 2nd núllennium BC the region was extensively populated, with an abundance of settlements
located in high places. As building techniques in stone
and mud progressed, being adapted for use in
mountainous settings, these settlements began to
show signs of urbanization, with terraced p latforms,
walls and rectangular-shaped compartments, often
placed on either side of a central s treet. Material culture now incorporated a full range of metal utensils,
initially of copper and la ter of a copper and tin aUoy to
form bronze, witl1 stone industries being relegated
almost exclusively to sílex scythe teeth. As for burials,
these now tended to be either individual or including
only a sma ll number of individuals, perhaps signifying an incipient increase in social hierarchles.
The archaeological sites of Mas de Menente and
Mola Alta de Serelles (Alcoi, l' Alcoia district) were
the first Valencian Bronze Age villages to be excavated,
a tas k that was undertaken in t11e 1920s. Those early
findings u11earthed hlgh-altitude, walled villages, with
an abunda nce of materials such as large storage vases,
cooking pottery, wooden scythes with silex teeth, bone
hole punches and, above all, metal blades for daggers,
punches and axes. Economk activities were basically
wheat and barley growing and s heep and goat
herding.
At Mola Alta de SereUes, metalwork must have
been particularly important, as documented by t11e
presence of nine fotmdry moulds, all of which were
found in the same comparbnent. This is the largest
find having been made, although foundry work must
have becn done in other viUages, to judge by the
remains of s lag, melting pots, moulds and a variety of
remains of other metals. Despite this, metallurgy in the
83
[page-n-84]
PREHISTORY MUSEUM
Valencian Bronze Culture was seemingly held back
by the scarcity of mineral deposits in the region; it was
the southern El Argar Culture where metallurgy was
much more important, and, being located in a more
southerly area, villages in the present-day Alcoia
district certainly played a role in the dissemination of
teclmiques. A lack of tin deposits converted bronze
into a metal wlúch was highly prized, being used
primarily for adornment and arms, and becoming
widely used only towards the end of the period.
La Muntanyeta de Cabrera (Torrent, l'H orta
district) is another noteworthy village in the history of
research into the Valencian Bronze Age. It was
discovered by N. Prirnitiu and excavated in 1931 by M.
Jornet, although work only affected the upper section
of the hill w here this settlement was located. Structures
having been studied include a village wall and a
compartment butting against this wall. Discoveries
range from decorated pottery, metal, silex and bone
objects with triangular prism shapes, used to
manufacture buttons. Near the settlement was a small
burial cave.
A very significant collection of materials was
recovered from the vill¡¡ge of Ereta del Castellar
(Vilafranca, l' Alt Maestrat district). Excavations
carried out he re in 1957 w1earthed three rooms
separated by clay and stone walls, beaten-earth floors
and wooden posts used to support roofs, and inside
these dwellings were large storage vases decorated
profusely with raised filleting. Other elements provide
proof of a variety of economic activities: truncated
cone-shaped cheese moulds with open ends and a
perforated body, used to separate curds and whey;
ronnd, earthenware Ioom weights with four perforations; anda spindle whorl, indica ti ve of textile making.
Remains of carbonated cereals again evidence wheat
and barley growing, as do silex-toothed scythes.
During the last two decades, new excavations of
these villages have enabled us to deepen our knowledge of these stone constructions. Tn sorne cases they
reached notable proportions. Raised terraces, access
systems ;m d in general, much transformation of the
surrounding areas can be interp1·eted as a sign of
84
substantial levels of social cohesion. Our nnderstanding of these small settlements has therefore been
updated thanks to discoveries made at La Mw1tanya
Assolada in Alzira and La LJoma de Betxi in Paterna,
wlúd1 were both villages with a long history.
La Lloma de Betxí (Paterna, l'Horta district) is
situated next to the river Turia on a low-lying hillock.
The exceUent conservation of these archaeological remains provided interesting data on btúlding techniques and home utensils. Typical constructions
showed two upper rooms with a lateral passageway
measuring over 30 metres in length, 10 metres wide
and up to 4 metres ltigh, with stone walls dressed with
mud, and a sod roof over a !ayer of tree branches
supported by wooden beams. Household utensils consisted of ceramic, metal, stone and bone objects, plus
ornamental articles, d istributed in a storage zone and a
cereal milling zone equipped with an oven and work
benches in stone a11d mud; remains of fabric pieces
evidence textile weaving, and esparto grass debris
testify to basketry work. Han1mers, chisels and mallets
were fow1d next to a wall. In al! probability, it must
ha ve been a large communal building, possibly a warehouse, complete witl1 cistern next to the access road
and tall walls built using raised terraces along the
slopes, in addition to other u1dividual dwellings on the
higher part of the hill.
La Muntanya Assolada (Alzir a, la Ribera Alta
district) is representative of settlements located at
considerable heights, domi.nating n1 this case a large
part of the Xuquer river valley. The upper sections
show rectangular compartments dosed off by natural
cliff walls or by man-made walls, with a complex system of accesses and various lines of raised earthwork
around the settlement to form terraces. Studies have
given us a good pichtre of socio-economic aspects and
daily lile among Bronze Age peoples in this region.
The remains of animals provide evidence of a farming
community with a predominru1ce of sheep and goats.
The ox was used as a draught ru1imal, in addition to
providn1g meat ru1d milk, and pigs were also raised.
Crow hunting seems to have been undertaken as a
mP.ans of protecting gra in-producing crops, which can
therefore be considered to be extensive.
[page-n-85]
Sandstone mould
and cover for flat
axehead
and chisel making,
from Mola Alta de
Serelles (Alcoi).
Valencian
Bronze cult·u re:
between 1,800
and 1,400 Bl'.
Length: 20.0cm.
A buria1 cave in the proximity of the Muntanya
Assolada village shows signs of contiJmity in its use as
a necropolis, as observed in the Campaniform horizon.
But one individual burial has also been fow1d in the
interior of the village, as at the Peña la Dueña site in
Teresa, and at Altico de la Hoya in Navarrés, and
Atalayuela in Losa del Obispo, showing the diversity
obtaining during the Bronze Age as faT as funeral rites
are concerned, perhaps evidencing social diiferences.
Present-day Alicante distrícts to the south of the
Vinalopó river can be dassified within the El Argar
Culture, which was a brilliant manifestation of the
peninsular Bronze Age extending over present-day
Murcia, Almería and Granada. Important sites are Sru1
Antón in Orilmela, the castle slopes ii1 Callosa de Segura, or El Tabaia in Aspe. These villages show highly
developed urbanization, with constructions of a public
nature and facilities for storing aU sorts of goods required for commwuty life, in addition to strategic outposts and fortification systems overlooking farmlands
and controlling what appear to be trade routes. During
the El Argar Culture, necropolises increasing appear
inside dwelling places. These are usual! y individual or
double tombs, generally located in graves lined with
stone slabs, called cists, or in urns or large earthenwar
e
jars called pitlwi. Among funerary offerings frequently
placed next to the dead are blades, halberds, and metal
ornaments, as well as ceramic vases, objects made of
bone and others in stone, signiiying, in some
individuals, wealth, prestige, or power, and therefore
clear signs of existing social hierarchies.
The end of the 2nd millennium BC brought about ru1
intermedia te period between the Bronze Age and the
Iberian Culture. Decorated cerarnics origínating in
neighbouring regions and certain new forms of material culture indicate the beginning of a new stage.
Nevertheless, one of the most significant changes at
this time was a restructuring of the population, with
the majority of high-altitude villages being abandoned
il1 favour of occupation on flatlands or mountail1
85
[page-n-86]
Sícklc with silex tooth flakes and wooden
hilndlc found at Mas de Menentc.
Valcncian Bronze culture:
between 1,800 and 1.400 BP.
Length: •IS.Ocm.
Globular-body ccramic vase
with one handlc from Muntanya AssolildR
(Aizira). Villcncinn Bronze culture:
bctween 1,800 and 1.400 BP.
Height: 14.5cm; Mouth diameter: 14.0cm.
slopes. These newly created villages were oval in
shape and were often constructcd using perishable
materials. The economy continucd to be fueled by
farming and livestock rearing, but it was complemented in sorne districts by bronze manufacturing. Thus,
in the final days of the Bronze Age, thcre are welldocumented mining sites in the Valencian region
86
showing extensive activities: Penya Negra in Crevillent, and Mola d' Agres, which have both produced
foundry moulds used in Atlantic Bronze tool manufacturing, meaning that there was a faír amount of
commerce, probably carried out via the sea route. Also
pertaining to Atlantic Bronze manufacture are the
articles found at the Huerta de Arriba site in Burgos
[page-n-87]
Ceranúc bowl with
serrated edge from Castitlarejo
de los Moros (Andilla).
Valencian Bronze culture:
between 1,800 and 1,400 BP.
Mouth diameter: 22.4cm.
Earthenware spindJe whorl from
the Valencian Bronze culture
si tes of Mas de Menen te and
Ereta del Castellar (Vilafranca).
Between 1,800 and 1,000 BP.
Leng th of largest piece: 24.0cm.
87
[page-n-88]
Ceramic wares from
Liorna de Betxí.
Ho usehold pots,
bow 1and ílared va ses.
Valencian Bro nze culture:
between1,800 and 1,400 81'.
Mouth djameter of la rgest pot:
14.5cm. He.i ght: 12.0cm.
Cerarnic and metal materials
from eastern Andalusian
si tes at Pue rto Lumbreras,
Vélez Blanco and Guad ix.
Bowl and flanged vases, blade
with rivets and bronze spirals
from bronze funeral offerings.
El Argar culture:
between 1,800 a nd 1,400 or.
Length of largest blade: 20.0cm.
88
[page-n-89]
Arms ¡md metill objects
from the l-luertas de
Arriba si te in Burgos
(northern Spain). Bronze
l¡mce tip, dagger blades
and bracelets. Atlanlic
Bronze: between 1,200
and 800 Bl'. Length of
largest piece: 19.5cm.
Large storage vase with cord
decorations in relief from
Ereta del CasteUar. Valencian
Bronze culture: between 1,400 and
1,000 BP. Height: 74.0cm.
89
[page-n-90]
[page-n-91]
SECOND FLOOR
ROOM 1: THE M EDITERRANEAN W ORLD
ROOM U: THE lBERIANS
ROOM
lli: LARGE IBERIAN SETI1..EMENTS
ROOM IV: T HE lBERIAN H OME
ROOM V : LBERIAN FUNERAL R ITES ANO R EUGION
ROOM VJ: E DETA ANO ITS ENVIRONS
ROOM VU: I BERIAN W RITINO
ROOM VHI: l BERIAN COINS
ROOM
IX: THE ROMAN
ROOM
X: VALENCIAN COINS-
EPOCH
10TH-IJTH
o
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c.
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[page-n-92]
[page-n-93]
<1
Punic terracotta from the
sanctuary of La Cova des
Cuieram (Sant joan, Ibiza)
representing the goddess Tanit.
3rd C BC.
I-leight 16.2cm.
Tlie secoud floor dedicntes Rooms Jtlirougli VIII/o Iberia u
culture, Room IX coutnius Romn11 exliibils nud Room X s/iows 1/ie
Musemu's coiu collecliou . Room/ serves as a preseulatiou of lile coloui:zntiou era, ie, fromtlie 8111
lo 6th ceu/uries BC. Se/ iu a Mediterrnueau únckgrormd nre mmrerous amplrorns from various
epochs, brouglrl lo tllis regiou 1/rnuks lo 1/ie busy lrnde relatious belweeu consta/ peoples nud
trnders from nbrond. Tlrere are also iuteresliug co/lectious from tire Greek colouy of f.mpríries aud
tire Pmric colouy of Ibiza.
I. THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD
Ever since preh.istoric times the Mediterranean Sea
has provided a means of commun.ication and acculturation beh-veen the peoples in11abitiJ1g its shores. Over a
geography measuring 4,500 kilometres, from Gibraltar
to the Syrian coast, similar la.ndscapes and crops reflect
ways of life which are common to the majority of people
in the region. Navigation, wh.ich has been documented
since thc Neolithic, increased iJ1 frequency and in number of destinations as of 800 BC, when the Phoenicians
and Greeks carne westwards in search of metals and
new lands to cultivate. The Mediterranean was a stage
for continua! rivalry among Phoenicians, Etrusca.ns,
Greeks and Carthaginians, until the Romans finally imposed their authority and dubbed the entire sea as
simply Mnre Nostrwn.
During the lberian epod1 iJ1 the region of Valencia,
Phoenician, Greek, Etruscan, Punic and Roman amphoras reveal the importance of trade in products such as oil
and wine throughout the Mediterranean region. The
lberian peninsula exerted an attraction over Eastern
Mediterranean colonists and traders, who carne in
search of metals, and, toa lesser extent, agricultural products and other raw rnaterials. The installation of Phoenician factories in Ibiza, Cádiz, Málaga or Almuñécar as
of the 8th century BC, and the founding of Greek colon.ies
sorne time later, as of 600 BC, in Emporion and Rhodes
(Catalonia), were determinü1g factors in the acculturation process of local inhabitants, who began to
assin1ilate new influences little by little w1til they gave
rise to what we now know as the lberian Culture.
The island of Ibiza, strategically situated on the route
from the Orient to the legendary sites of Tarshish gold
and silver, was occupied by Phoetúcians until the mid7th century BC. It was here that one of the most original
rnanifestations of Punic Culture carne to flourish in
western Jands. Of note among thc rnany settlements
founded on the island is the rock-shelter sanctuary of Es
Cuierarn, where hundreds of terracotta models of the
pw1ic goddess Ta1út were unearthed. Also in1portant
was the cemetery of the city of Ebussus, called El Puig
deis Molins, where thousands of tornbs ha ve provided a
wealth of funerary offerings.
93
[page-n-94]
Empúries, located on the northern coast of Girona
province, is undoubtedly the best docwncnted Greek colon y on the Iberian peninsula. Emporion (lllnrketplnce] was
fow1ded by Hellenic traders around 600 BC and beca me a
doorway for the entry of new people, products, customs
and ideas from the Hellenic states, and its influence over
94
thc indigenous lberian world was sig nificant. Although
the colon y of Emporion is best known for its architecture
of Reman origin, t:his was erected over the original Greek
ruins, with the original Greek qua y in the port and its necropolis having been found. Tombs excavated in the earIy 20th century ha ve provided a wealth of remains.
[page-n-95]
Terracota púnica de la necrópolis
del Puig deis Molins (Ibiza).
Busto femenino. Siglos IV-111 a.C.
Alt.23'0cm.
Oenochoe púnico de pasta vítrea
del Puig deis Molins. Siglo V a.C.
Alt. 7'3cm.
Attic Lekythos from the
necropolis of Empúries (Girona).
5th-4th BC. Height 10.6cm.
e
Greck tcrracotta from the necropolis of
Emp(•ries. Woman with bare torso. 5th-4th
BC. Height 17.1cm.
e
95
[page-n-96]
[page-n-97]
lberian ex-voto in bronze
from the sanctuary
of Peal Becerro (Jaén).
Woman wrapped in long cloak.
6th-4th e oc.
Height 12.0cm. de
Roomll slarls willl a geueml iulroduclioulo lberia11 culture,
wllic/1 developed oullle peuiusula behveeu tire 61!1 aud lile 2ud ceulury ~c.
Presidiug lile Room is a hologram of lile Dama de Elx, complemeuled by cemmics, volive offeriugs
in bronze, anda mil/ wlleel. Tl1e origius of lhis culture are reflecled in txrrious siles perlainiug lo
lile iuitial slages, suc/1 as Los Vi/lares iu Caudete de las Fueules, Altea la Ve/la, l.n Soliuella i11
Alea/O de Xiverl, El Boverol i11 Almassom or El Puulalel, aud lile Caoo/1 c«ve iu Llíria.
II. THE IBERIANS: ONE CULTURE,
MANY SETTLEMENTS
The discovery of the Dama de Elche in 1897 and
subsequent excavations undertaken in the Alcúdia
settlcments in Elx, the Covalta de Albaida, La Serreta
in Alcoi, La Bastida de les Alcuses in Moixent and Sant
Miquel in Llíria converted the Valencian region in a
pioneering zone for knowledge of the lberian Culture.
Classical Greek and Latin authors gave the name of
iber-iberes to the inhabitants of the Mediterranean
coastal regions stretching from Andalusia to the
Hérault River in France. The Jberians, like the Greeks,
never achieved political unity, nevertheless, they
shared many features in common. These formed part
of the so-called Iberian Culture described by researchers, which developed from the 6th to the 2nd or 1st
centw·y BC, with traits comparable to those of other
Mediterranean cultures.
The existence of cities, where the ruling classes
lived, is the most characteristic feature of the Iberians'
political and social organization. The widespréad use
of metal and the potter's wheel marks their technological development. Similarly, the use of writing, the
existence of a system of weights and measmes, and
Iast but not least, the minting of coin all give an idea of
the degree of complexity achieved by lberian society.
Settlements in the region of Valencia have been
quoted in classical texts. The Ilercavones inl1abited
lands extending from the Ebro river to the Millars, and
their most important settlements are Moleta deis
Frares in Forcall, Puig de la Nau in Benicarló, Puig de
la Misericórdia in Vinaros and Torre la Sal in Cabanes.
The Edetanos lived in an area ranging southwards
from the Millars river to the Xúquer river, with important towns such as Solaig in Betxí, Punta d'Orleyl il1
Vall d'Uix6, and the cities of Sagunt/ Arse and Tossal
de Sant Miquel/Edetn in Llíria, Carencia in Turís or the
97
[page-n-98]
PREH!STORY MUSEUM
Pico de los Ajos in Yátova. The Cootestanos, with
settlements such as Xativa/Sniti, La Serreta in Alcoi,
Tossal de Manises in Alicante, Monastil in Elda, La
Alcúdia in Elx/Illici, La Escuera and El Oral in San
Fulgencio, occupíed the territory between the Xúquer
and the Segura rivers.
lberian Culture was the result of a process of
formation that first started in the 8th century se with
the founding of the first Phoenician coloníes in the
south of the peninsula. From these coastal colonies the
initial stimulus was provided, giving indigenous tribes
access to new products and new techniques. Thus, for
example, the grapevine, whose remains are documented in theAlt de Benimaquia in Dénía dating from
the 6th century se, was introduced for the benefit of
the local elite, who were increasingly interested in
emulating coloniallifestyles. In the Los Villares settlement in Caudete de las Fuentes, in Vmarragel in
Burriana and El Torrelló in Almassora, it is clear that
there was a progressive substitution of hand-made
ceramics by wares manufactured on the newly introduced potter's wheel. These developments contributed to greater stability within settlements, as new
technology brought growth and a greater concentration of populations, and new building methods as
well. In Los Saladares in Orihuela, and above al!, in
Penya Negra in Crevillent, organized town construction completely changed the face of former
prirnitive huts from the end of the Bronze Age.
The discoveries from the spurs of the Tossal de Sant
Miquel hill, known as El Puntalet and El Collado de la
Cova d el Cavall (Llíria, Camp de Túria district)
belong to this formatory period of the Iberian Culture.
In 1947, two burial areas dating from the end of the 7th
century and the mid-6th century se were excavated.
The remains of five incinerations were found inside a
number of burial urns, which turned out to ha ve been
made both by hand and on the wheel. One of these was
a Phoenician storage vessel with painted decoration.
The fu11era l offerings found along with the urns were
negligible.
98
Similarly, two handmade urns containing incinerated remains were found in pit tombs at El Boverot
(Almassora, La Plan a Alta district) in 1932. These
belong to the end of the Bronze Age, the 8th century BC,
just before the spread of colonial influences. These
burials probably formed part of a necropolis datiJ1g
back over a longer time and linked to the nearby
settlement of Torrelló (Almassora).
Other archaeologica1 sites and characteristic materials of the period indude Cabezo de Monleón
(Caspe, Zaragoza prov.), a village with stratigraphic
sequences dating from the 10th to the 7th centuries ac.
This settlement showed no signs of having used the
potter's wheel, and only hand-made ceramics with
channelled and mcised decorations typical of the end
of the Bronze Age have been found.
Los Villares (Caudete de las Fuentes, la Plana de
Utiel district), a large-scale site excavated as of 1956,
shows stratigraphíc sequences facilitating the study of
how the Iberian Culture was formed. Over a substrate
belongmg to the Late lron Age, characterized by handmade pottery, new influences from the coastal Phoenician and Greek colonies were superimposed during
the 7th-5th centuries BC. The best documented developments were ceramic wares made on potters' wheels
and objects made m iron.
The necropolis of La Solivella (Alcala d e Xivert,
Baix Maestrat district), where the dead were incmera ted, dates from the 6th to the first half of the 5th
century ac. This was excavated in 1961, when a total of
28 sepulchres were discovered, laid out in pit tombs.
All ceramics recovered from these sites were made
locally, on wheels, and the offerings accompanying the
incinerated remams were meta l objects used for
personal adornment and arms.
The necropolis of Altea la Vella (Altea, Marin a
Baixa district), discovered Íl11972, provided a number
of incinerations with only a few funeral offerings composed mainly of belt brooches and adornments. AH
funerary urns had small handles and were characteristic of the Old Iberian horizon, ie, the 6th-5th
centuries BC. One of the tombs was marked with a stele
on which a clothed and armed warrior is shown.
[page-n-99]
"Urnas de orejetas" (lidded
cinerary urns with perforated
handles) from the Iberian
necropolis of AJtea la Vella
(Al tea). 6th e BC. Height of
tallest um 33.5cm.
rberian ex-voto in bronze
from the sanctuary
of Despeña perros (Jaén).
4th e oc.
Height 6.0cm.
99
[page-n-100]
lbcrian vase decorated with banding
and fillets from the Los Villares
settlement (Caudetc de las Fuentes).
6th C BC. Height 36.7cm.
100
[page-n-101]
loninn cup from the Los Villares
settlement. From 530-500 years oc.
ll eighl 6.5cm.
Phoenician vase from
L'\ Cova del CavaU (Liiria).
7th-6th e oc.
Height 35.0cm.
101
[page-n-102]
[page-n-103]
<1
The "Warrior of Moixent",
an lberian ex-voto in bronze found
at La Bastida de les Alcuses (Moixent).
4th C BC. Height 7.3cm.
Room m preseuls fiuds fromlnrge-scnle Iberiau setflemeuts,
with their complex gridwork of streets nnd fortificntious, usiug ns 1111 exnmple lile citadel of 1.n Bastida de les Alcuses iu Moixe11f. Of uole here nre iro11 implemeuls,
adommeuts, arms, imported poltery oomished ;, blnck, nud pnrtiwlnrly, n dimiuutive yet illl·
pressive brouze votive offering k11owu as lile 'Wnrrior of Moi:w1t'. Completing li1e room is a
display of jewellery gathered from various si/es, n womnu's uecklnce, a small polychrome glass
matrix hend from Ln Cooolta de Albaida n11d n gold enrring from Penyn Roja i11 Llírin.
III. LARGE IBERIAN SETTLEMENTS AND THEIR
SURROUNDINGS: ECONOMIC ASPECTS
During the Iberian Culture the shape of the environment and the structure of the population changed dramatically in comparison to preceding periods. For the
first time, true cities began to exist, centres of activity that
exercised political and economic control over the
surrounding territory, which contained its own fabric of
farmlands, villages and towns. The land was protected
by fortresses, wh.ich were placed at strategic locations to
control the "frontiers" of each individual territory.
Excavations show that this society was unmistakably
sedentary in nature. It was organized in such a way as to
ensure appropriate defence. Iberiru1 settlements such as
La Bastida de les Alcuses in Moixent, La Covalta de
Meca in Ayora, El Puig in Benicarló, or La lleta dels
Banyet in Campello, located on meseta-topped hills or
on flat lands, presenta square-shaped ttrban layout with
large houses, surrounded by a walled enclosure with
sturdy towers. Of a more complex nature were the
hillside settlements such as El Tossal de Sant Miguel in
Llúia, El Tossal de la Cala in Benidorm or La Serreta in
Alcoi, where the topography called for more resourcefulness in plamung streets, with block layouts rising
terrace-like up the lilll. Other types of Jayouts are known,
such as small villages with one central street, unfortified
settlements and isolated towerhouses whicl1 were used
for a variety of purposes. The discovery of multiple-floor
buildings and religious enclosures are sorne of the Iesser
known aspects of lberian urbanization.
La Bastida de les Alcuses (Moixent, La Costera
district) was partially excavated between 1928 and 1931.
This was a settlement of Contestanos that only seems to
have ]asted a short 100 years, being violently destroyed
in the second half of the 4th century BC. It has a strategic
Jocation on one of the natural routes from the coast to the
inland meseta, known in Roman times as the Augustus
Road, and the course of the Vinalopó river flowing
103
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PREHISTORY MUSEUM
through Alicante province. It had a walled enclosure
contai.ning as muchas six hectares, with four portals, one
of which was soon closed off, and three towers. lnside
the walls, the town is laid out in blocks with large
buildings facing onto a broad central street. Lead tablets
with Iberian script, a bronze figurine known as the
''Warrior of Moixent", a collection of Greek ceramic
wares and a set of farro and traders' implements are
some of the more important finds w1earthed here.
Agriculture and animal husbandry were the major
economic activities of the Iberians. The variety of farm
implements in i.ron, comprising ploughshares, ploughstaffs, spades, adzes, sickles, billhooks and picks, reveal
the importance of dryland farming where the emphasis
was on cereals. Other metal tools sucl1 as saws, clúsels,
drills, wlústles, trowels and needles reflect the importance of craftsmanship in the fields of quarrying, woodworking and leather-making.
Herds of sheep and goats were fwldamental for the
supply of meat and milk, and also for obtai:túng Júdes
and wool. Pigs were also raised for meat, whereas oxen
where mainly work ani.mals, and the horse was groomed
as a mow1t. Hw1ting wild ani.mals, particularly deef¡ the
wild boar or the mountain goat, was a complement to the
diet of noblemen, as was fishing or gatheri.ng wild fruits.
Clothing is only known i.ndi.rectly through statues
and ceramics. Women appear to have worn underskirts
and long tu.nics adorned with trimmi.ngs, over which
long tlúck cloaks, usually in purple, were wom as
protection against the cold. Footwear consisted of leather
slippers. Ceremonial raiment i.ncluded elaborate headdresses resting on coifs and comprisi.ng veils, tall mitres
and diaderns, and jewellery such as necklaces, earrings,
bracelets a11d rings. Men wore breeches and a short tu.nic
belted around the waist and long cloaks Ieavi.ng the right
arm free, clasped over the shoulder using a metal brooch.
Men also wore personal adornments such as earrings,
rings and bracelets. For battle, they used helmets, a
pectoral clipeus fastened with leather straps, and greaves
or shin armour.
Bronze tools, objects and instruments from La Bastida de les Alcuses.
Ring brooches, bell, tweezers, articulated compass, hook, button and pendant. 4th C BC.
Tweezer length 8.3cm.
104
[page-n-105]
Iberian ceramic: tableware with painted geometric decoration
from La Bastida de les Alcuses. Jug, vases, kylix, oenochoe and cup.
4th e BC. Height of tallest piece 17.lcm.
Attic: oenoc:hoe with black vamish
from La Bastida de les Alcuses.
4th e BC. 1-Ieight 13.7c:m.
105
[page-n-106]
Iro n farm implements from
Lil Bastida de les Alcuses.
Billhook, axe, pickhead, spade
and ploughshare. 4th e BC.
Length of biggest piece 25.2cm.
Gold lmir need le wíth
eh<~ in of 8 braided gold
cords from Lil Bastida
de les Alcuses. 4th e
oc. Length 29.3cm.
106
[page-n-107]
Gold pendant earring
from the Penya Roja
settlement (Liíria).
Decorated gold disc with
central rosette
surrow1ded by a circle of
18 faces, embossed and
stippled. 5th e BC.
Diameter 4.5cm.
Polychrome glass
matrix pendant of
Punic workmanship
from the eovalta
settlemenl (Albaida).
Bearded man's Cace.
4th-3rd e oc.
Height 3.7cm.
107
[page-n-108]
[page-n-109]
Ceramic foot-shaped guttas
from the Los Villares settlement.
Oil or perfume holder.
3rd C ac. Height lO.Ocm.
Room TV gives liS n pic/11re of rlomestic life al the time of the
/beria11 C
llll11re. Pnrl of 11 recol/slmcted lberinn dwe/liug slwws idenliu rl
nrens for ncl ivil ies SI/eh ns cooking, wenvi11g, milling nurl slomge. lt~rlepcnrlently, there is nlso n
rlisplny of beekeeping nurloil exime/ion nctivities. Tnblewnre, importerl lltXIII}f vessels nnrllnrge
sfornge recipienls brcmgltl from Los Vil/m·es in Cn11rlete rle las F11eutes complete litis overview of
lypicnl Iberian ltO
IISeholrl goorls.
IV. THE IBERIAN HOME
MateriaJs employed in the construction of lberian
houses included mud, stone and wood. Homes usually
had a stonewall foundation or plinth, over whi.ch adobe
walls were erected. These were faced with mud and
whitewashed, or occasionally, painted in reddish or
bluish colours. Roofs were flat, serving as te1Taces and
were composed of a thick gridwork of branches and
vegetable fibre set on beams and covered with a thick
!ayer of day. These homes were the centrepoint for all
domestic, craft and social activities. In large-scale
settlements, houses were divided into compartments
used for different purposes: the living quarters, or famiJy rooms, occupied the main area, where cooking and
textile work were carried out; storerooms containing
amphoras and other vessels were kept separately in
smaller, darker rooms. Other roorns were used for sleeping, milling work oras workshops.
Household goods were mainly composed of ceramíe recipients of one kind or a11other. Basketry or wooden implements existed, but evidence is limited to a few
carbonized remains. Thanks to the potter's wheel, many
different kinds of ceramic wares were produced in
varying sizes and shapes for storing, preserving and
serving food and drink. Finds indude a table service
comprising plates, cups, jars and bottles; small recipients for spices, ointments and perfume; occasional
pieces such as covers, strai11ers, bases and mortars; and
ritual vessels which are clearly imitations of imported
ware sucl1 as kraters (wine mixing bowls) and kylixes
(wide, shallow drinking bowls). For cooking purposes,
earthenware pots, bowls and dishes were made; these
were crude-looking but resistant, as they could be exposed to the flames directly without cracking.
Los Villares (Caudete de las Fuentes, La Plana de
Utiel district) is a prime example of an lberian regional
capital. It was known in its day as Kelin, the largest
settlement in the area. Excavations were first started in
1956, and show the evolution of the site from the 7th
century ac until its decadence and final abandonment
between the years 88 and 77 ac. It was located at an
intersection of the road from the coast to the interior and
the inland route to Temel, and served as a channel for
109
[page-n-110]
PREHISTORY MUSEUM
the dísh·ibution of commercial products, growing to
become the most important settletnent in the area on
which smaller enes depended for their livelihood.ln the
section havíng been excavated there is an urban layout
with large comparh11ented houses facing streets on
which horse or oxen-drawn carts could circula te freely.
The term "regional capital" is justified in view of the fact
that the town occupied some 10 hectares, it traded in a
variety of farm produce, it produced inscribed lead
tablets and produced its own coinage.
At La Seña (Villar del Arzobjspo, La Serratúa
district) and El Castellet de Bemabé (Llíria, Camp de
Túria district) a number of \·vhitewashed dugout pools
were foLmd in which carbonized olive stones were present. These were obviously used as olive curü1g tanks,
proof of the existence of olive oil production before the
arrival of the Romans. Oil was used in the preparation
and preservation of food, for lighting purposes and in
the elaboration of creams and oinhnents. For processiJ1g,
olives were packed into hemp nets, and these were
packed between stone millwheels, which were pressed
usü1g a screw system employing a wooden beam turned
by counterweights. The pressing ran out along radial
channels cut into the stone wheels, being deposited in a
sediJ11entation tank where the pure oil carne to the
surface. This pure oil was rw1 off into a second tank,
while the water and impurities were left in the first tank
Honey was used as a sweetener in ancient times. Although there are painted references to honey gathering
dating back to Prehistoric times, as shown in rock-shelter art, there is no physical or archaeological evidence of
beekeeping until the Iberian epoch. Settlements in the
Camp de Turia dísh·ict seem to have frequently used a
system of cylindrical ceramic vessels as beehives, with
the potter's ribbing left in relíef on the insides. Examples
of these have been fotmd at Puntal deis Llops (Olocau,
Camp de Túria district) and at Moruavana and El
Tossal de Sant Miquel (Llíria, Camp de Túria disb·ict).
Thís type of beehive, Wl1ich is still m use Ü1 Greece,
Cyprus, Egypt and Jm·dan today, a11d used w1til recent
days m Majorca and Andalusia, Spam, was considered
by Roman writers to be of very poor quality, as "they
ignite with the heat of the swmner and freeze with the
cold of winter" (Columella, Agricultllrn, IX, VI). They
were stacked on the ground horizontally, sealed with
cork or earthenware lids in which holes were made to
enable the bees to enter and exit. The ribbing mside
facilitated honeycomb adherence.
Attic kylix-skyphos, with red figures, from the Los ViUa.res sectlement,
showing Eros facing a youth wearing a himation. 4th C BC. Mouth diameter 12.5cm.
110
[page-n-111]
lbcrian iron keys from the El Xarpolar
(Magarida-Pianes) 11 nd Puntal deis Llops
(Oiocau) settlements. 3rd e oc. Length of
largest piece ll.5cm.
lberian kitchen cerilmics from Los Villares.
Pot, cups, pan and perforated charcoal
holder. 3rd e BC. Pan diameler 29.0cm.
eeramic beehive contai ne rs from the settlements of
Puntal deis Llops, El Tossal de Sant Miquel (Liíria)
and La Monravana (Uíria). 3rd-2nd e oc.
Length of largest piece 59.2cm.
111
[page-n-112]
[page-n-113]
<1
Terracotta perfume bumer
from Puntal deis Llops.
Representa!ion
of the goddess
Oemeter /Tanit. 3rd C BC.
Height 15.2cm.
Room V couceulmles 0 11 frmemry cusloms. From tire Corral
de Snus necropolis in Moixenl come n vnriety of seu/piures nud
orclritecturnl elemeuts Ollet! forming por/ of !berio11 lombs. Tire Perlas de Znrrn nnd Cnsn del
Moute uecropolises iu Vn/degnrrgn (Aibncele prov.) give us 11 view of frmernlums n11d offeriugs
for tire decensed, wlro were iuciuernted, os we/1 os wnrriors' omrs. Also slrowu ore child lmriols
from Cnstellet de Bemnbé iu Llrria, ex-votos from Desperinperros, terracottn from Prmtnl deis
L/ops iu Olocau nud votive offeriug jors from Prmtnl del /-lom o Ciego cove in Villorgordo del
Cnbriel, n/1 correspoudiug lo pinces of worship.
V. IBERIAN FUNERAL RITES
AND RELIGION
The lberians incinerated their d ead, a process
which was accompanied by the burning of aromatic
herbs. The ashes of the deceased were then carefully
collected and deposited in a locttlus, with or without an
urn. Together with these incinerated remains, funera l
offerings were placed in tombs. These offerings were
objects that indicated the social status of the deceased,
such as luxury ceramics, weapons or tools; personal
ornaments such as brooches or necklace beads, and in
sorne cases figurines, amulets or food offerings. Any
munber of ceremonies could be held during the celebration, such as libations, funerary games, processions
or corteges, and banquets. Common graves in Iberian
necropolises or cemeteries were mere pit tombs, or
holes dug in the ground covered with a mound of
earth or stone. Luxury sepulchres were stone or adobe
barrows, marked by pillars or stelae or tower-s haped
monuments, expressing princely status. Tombs, in any
case, were anonymous and only after the Roman con-
quest did funerary stones begin to bear any
engravings, as evidenced by the Sinarcas gravestone.
El Corral de Saus (Moixent, La Costera ctistrict) is
a necropolis which was excavated in the 1970s, revealing two large stone burial mound monuments
known as the Dnmitns tomb and Sirenns tomb, and over
15 cremated corpses buried in pits. Among the funerary offerings deposited here were Iberian ceramics,
imported ceramics dated between the 5th and 1st centuries BC, metal objects, glass matrix objects, terracottas, and calcified bones, evidence of cremation. A
funerary monument corresponding to the oldest phase
of this necropolis, between the 6th-5th centuries se,
has been reconstructed as a pillar1stele thanks to the
sculpted remains used in tumulus structures dating
from a later phase, between the 3rd-2nd centuries se.
The elements forming part of the pillar/stele-type
monument from the Corral de Saus are: stepped base,
113
[page-n-114]
PREHISTORY MUSEUM
square püla r, cyma with scotia and beading, topped
with a zoomorphic sculpture on a pedestal, measuring
between 2 and 3 metres in height. These monuments,
dating from the 6th-4th centuries BC, are known from
necropolises in Pozo Moro in Chinchilla (Albacete);
Monfo.rte del Cid (Alicante); a nd Coimbra del Barranco A ncho and El Prado in Jumilla, Fuentecica del
Tío Garrulo in Coy-Lorca, Los Nietos in Cartagena,
and El Ggarralejo in Mula (all in Murcia province).
Excavations in the necropolis of Las Peñas (Zarra,
Valle de Cofrentes) ha ve provided a total of 20 incinerations dating from the 6th-4th centuries BC. The
majority of these tombs were simple pits dug in the
ground, either circular or rectangular, with a !ayer of
s tone Lining the base or one of the sides. Only four of
the tombs were constructed using stone waU tedlniques, similar toa cist or a full stone lining. Except in
two cases, the pits contained a cinerary urn holding the
calcified bones a nd remains of the deceased a nd
sometimes a small metal object. All other household
goods or adornments employed as offerings, such as
arms, vases or necklace beads, were placed around the
urn and the whole ensemble was usually covered with
the ashes and carbons left over from incineration.
The presence of weapons is common in funeral
offerings, as observed at the necropolis of Casa de
Monte (Valdeganga, Albacete prov.). This confirms the
importance of warrior ideologies sustained by the
higher levels of society. This is also observable in
combat scenes shown in paintings on vases from El
Tossal de Sant Miquel in Lliria or from La Serreta in
Alcoi, evidencing a military hierarchy: riders with
spurs and plumed helmets seem to be directing the
infantry equipped with cuirasses, simple helmets and
s hields either rottnd (cnefrn) or elongated (scutum). The
arms borne by the riders are usually the soliferreum, a n
iron lan ce in one s ingle piece, or the pif11111, a wooden
s haft shod with an iron ferrule and point. The horses
wear headba nds and propitiatory bells. The uúantry
soldiers combat with fnlcntns, single-edged swords
with protected hilts, or s traight, double-ed ged swords
with antennae hilts.
One of the best documented funerary discoveries in
recent years are the child burials in fberian houses,
such as those found at Castellet de Bernabé (Llíria,
Camp de Túria district). Both newborns and babies
only a few months old are thought not to have shared
in the customary fun erary traditions and sites reserved
for adul ts. They were not incinerated or buried in cemeteries, but rather incarcerated under the floors of
T
be.rian houses. These customs lead researchers to beIieve that there were strict rites of passage according to
age, and only the fulfilment of these enabled the deceased to become honoured as full members of society.
ln sorne cases there is evidence suggesting that these
child burials were home-founding or home abandonment sacrifices.
ln addition to evidence from necropolises, the religious life of the fberians is manifested in specific places
of worship. From remate prehis toric times there seem
to be telluric beliefs, ie, associated with the earth itself,
whose continuance in the Iberian epoch can be úúerred
from deposits reguJarly made in certain caves. These
cave sanctuaries ha ve provided collections of materials
such as numerous calkiform vases and dishes used as
lamps or recipients for libations, sud1 as those found in
Cueva del Puntal del Horno Ciego (Villargordo del
CabrieJ, La Plana de Utiel).
Sanctuaries were often far removed from villages
and towns, and were associated with collective cults
which w ere possibly dedicated to reinforcing tribal
identity. Terracotta ex-votos were ofte n deposited at
these sites, such as those found at La Serreta in Alcoi,
or the stone and bronze objects representing worshippers or animals found at Cigarrelejo de Lua (Murcia
prov.) or Despeña perros Oaén prov.). The temples of La
llleta dels Banyets in Campello, of El Tossal de Sant
Miguel in Llíria, or of L' Alcúdia in Elx show signs of
the complex nature of Iberia n religion as well as thc
existence of household chapels inside villages.
C>
Sculpted female head in limestone belonging lo a fu nerary monument
from thc lberia n necropolis of Corr~ l de Saus (Moixent).
Sth·4th C oc. Height 20.4cm.
114
[page-n-115]
[page-n-116]
Siren's body in limestone from a funerary monumcnt at the lberian necropolis of Corra l de Saus.
5th-4th C BC. Length 52.0cm.
116
[page-n-117]
Lady of the Corral de Saus. Sculpted limestone female
figures used as <~rdtitectural elemen ts form ing pi!rt
of a ftmerary monument at the necropolis.
5th-4th C llC. Height 60.2cm.
117
[page-n-118]
Calciform jar decoralcd
with a bird wilh outslrelched wings
from lhe Corral de Saus necropolis.
2nd C BC. Hcight 13Acm.
Malerials from lhe lberian
nt. cropolis of Las Peñ11s (Zarra).
>
"Urnas de orejetas", faiCilta and iron
sword, bronze clasps. 6th e llC.
Hc ig ht of lnllesl urn 18.1cm.
11 8
[page-n-119]
Falcata and double-headed
sword in iron from the lberian
necropolis of Casa del Monte
(Valdeganga, Albacete prov.).
6th C BC. lengths 56.3 and 50.2cm.
119
[page-n-120]
[page-n-121]
<1
Jar or albarello, decorated with geometric
and floral molifs from El TossaJ
de Sant Miqucl. End of 3rd C
and beginning of 2nd C BC.
Height 25.0cm.
Room VI is dedicntetf lo lile /berim1 forlress lown nud ils
surroumliug lerrilory. El Tossnl tfe Slml Miquel iu Llrrin, nucieu/ Edeln lo
lile lberinus, is nu exnmple of n lnrge-scole si/e, from whic/1 there is n ric/1 collecliou of Tberinu
cernmics wi/11 pniuled figurnlh>e themes, suc/1 ns lile Vns tfels Guerrers, /he 'Wnrriors Vnsé. Edetn
was lhe cnpilnl of subslnulinlterritory subdivitfed iulo vrrrious cntegories of selllemeuts: villnges,
suc/1 ns Ln Seiin iu Villnr del Arzobispo, Moumvrrnn iu Llfrin; eslnles suc/1 ns Cnstellel de Bemnbé
in Llírin, whic/1 is showu iu n sen/e model iu nddilioulo coutributiug nrlicles; nud forlresses, suc/1
ns El Puulnl deis Llops iu Olocnu. This is n/1 explninetf 011 n lnrge iulernclil!t' model silowiug the
en tire modem-tfny Cnmp de T1irin districl with ndditiounl help from nu nudiovisunl.
VI. EL TOSSAL DE SANT MIQUEL:
THE CITY OF EDETA ANO ITS ENVIRONS
El Tossal de Sant Miquel (Li lria, Camp de Túria
dístrict) was excavated between the years 1933 and
1953, and is well-known for its collection of decorated
vases, with scripts accompanying many objects. In fact,
this site has provided the largest register of lberian
epigraphics on the peninsula. The Iberian regional capital, identifíed as Edetn by the Roman geographer Strabus, occupied a total of 10 hectares at its time of maximum splendour, between the 4th and 2nd C se, surrounding the entire hill. lt has a layout whlch is typical
of hillside settlements, with buildings backed against
the slope faci ng outwards in a series of artificial terraces
over whlch the streets ran. The terracing of the slope
was accentuated by the fact that houses had multiple
stories and flat roofs. In the 2nd e oc, following the
Roman conquest, the town was set aflame and destroyed, and for the rest of the century and the following
it gradualJy fell into disuse and was abandoned. As of
the 1st e AD the Roman city, constructed in the area
known as the Pla de 1'Are, grew to reach a new age of
splendour.
Oecorated Iberian vases can be grouped into two
very different pictorial styles depending on local geography and chronology: the Llíria-Oliva narratíve style,
with figurative scenes composed in friezes and often
accompanied by written texts, datíng from the end of
the 3rd e BC; and the Elx-Archena symbolic style, characterized by isolated images and illustratíons of mythologícal beings on central panels, dating from the 2nd-1st
e BC. In prestíge works of this kind, whlch usualJy seem
to have been commissioned, the role of the specialized
painter stands out from that of the potter. The subdivision of work among potters and painters, with commissions corning from above, confirms that lberian society was a hierarchy in whlch artísans and workshops
served the ruling urban classes.
121
[page-n-122]
PREHISTORY MUSEUM
The scenes painted on ceramics from Edetn, composed on friezes and always showing a variety of characters, reflect specific activities belonging to the aristocratic leve! of society. They show Jeisure pursuits such as
hunting and competitive games, and military feats, battles and duels, indicating the social importance of the
high-ranking warrior. Seated ladies, processions and
dances reflect well-establíshed festivities and religious
activities in ceremonies in which women always took
part, and judging by their garments and attributes, they
represented high-ranking ladies. Scenes depicted on
ceramic wares therefore show the urban world of U1e
privileged classes at ilie end of the 3rd e and beginning
of the 2nd C BC, immortalized by specialized artisans
and artists rendering services to the privileged. The lower leve! of society was made up of farmers, who worked
in the cow1try and villages surrow1ding the regional
capitals, and were never reflected ü1 Iberian iconography.
Recent research at Edetn-Llíria shows tl1at tlus city
played a role as capital of an extensive and well-defined
territory between the Sierra Calderona to the north, the
Turia river to the south, the Mediterranean coast to the
east and the mountainous Serranía zone to tl1e west.
Tlus predominance began around the year 400 BC, when
the population began to occupy four types of settlements: hamlets and villages located in farming areas,
both of which provided basic foodstuffs, fortresses
manned to defend fue territory, and finally, the capital
city of Edeta, the seat of government and tl1e major marketplace for products grown and traded in the region.
Harnlets and villages were the centres for agricultura! production in Edetan territory. Measurü1g almost
one hectare in size, Monravana near Llíria, Torreseca
near Casinos and La Seña near Villar del Arzobispo
were villages peopled with farmers occupied in supplying the city with food. Hamlets such as Castellet de
Bernabé near Llíria, were areas of about 1,000m2 in size
where it can be supposed that the landowner orgru.lized
work in the immediate vicüuty. The locations of these
small settlements near the most fertile terrains, and the
presence of structures used for processing agricultura]
products, such as winepresses and oil mills, indicate
their use for agricultura! purposes. Carpological sru.nples confirm that multiple crops were produced in the
122
usual Mediterranean tripartite rnanner: cereals, olives
ru.1d grapevines. Livestock associated with these dryland crops were rnainly sheep ru.1d goats, with a predominance of the latter. Deer, wild boar and mountain
goat hw1ting not only served to complement the diet,
but was obviously a leisure pursuit of the ntling classes.
La Seña (Villar del Arzobispo, La Serranía district)
was a walled village measuring sorne 8,000rn2 located on
flat lands. Excavations have tmearilied a winepress, a
section of houses backed agail1st the main walls and a
stratigraphic sequence dating from the 6th to the 2nd e
BC. The village of Monravana (Llíria, Carnp de Túria
district), measurü1g approximately 6,000m2, still
conserves its walled enclosure and housing sector
within the interior. In addition to houses, tl1e northernmost area contained two oilpresses and flour milling
facilities. The mills and presses in fuese two villages
confirm without any doubt the importance of winemaking ru.1d oil extraction befare ilie arrival of the
Romru.1s.
El Castellet de Bernabé (Llíria, Camp de Túria
district) is a hamlet of sorne 1,000m2 located at tl1e foot
of the Tres Pies fortress, on the spurs of the Sierra
Calderona. Built at the begimüng of the 4th C BC, it
seems to ha ve been violently destroyed at the start of the
2nd e BC. The layout was simple: one central lru.le
separated two distinct areas: a large house with a
hallway and five rooms where the owner and lus family
probably lived, and a series of smaller constmctions
with comparh11ents for storing products, milling cereals,
a blacksmith's or ironworks andan oilpress, all of which
had two storeys. The blacksmith's was a single
grow1dfloor room with a workbench strewn with iron
refuse and a number of pieces of slag from a forge,
reflecting ample ironworking activities in the settlement, whlcl1 also provided evidence of a lead fotmdry,
with a fumace, woodpile, a stone used asan anvil anda
crude pot for melting lead.
Around the year 400 se the regional capital of Edeta
was provided with a network of forts to protect its
frontiers. These were built in the form of small-scale
settlements, from 500 to 4,000m2 in size, with walls and
at least one tower, located in prominent positions which
[page-n-123]
Fragmenls of an Attic lekythos
with black figures from
El Tossal de Sant Miquel.
About 500 years ec. Length of
l;ugest fr¡¡gment ll .lcm.
were difficult to access, while commanding a wide view
over the surrounding land. They were sited on the
natural gateways to the routes leading into the eamp de
Túria district from the PaHmcia valley and the Serranía
district, as weU as along the Turia river. They were al!
within sight of each other and of thc headquarters in
Edetn, enabling the.m to communicate in the event of
danger. This defensive network, the symbol of Edetan
power, was dismantled at the beginning of the 2nd e BC,
when the Roman domi11ation had begw1 to be effective.
El Puntal dels Llops (Olocau, eamp de Túria
district) is one of the fortresses or lookout towers
belonging to this network, little more than 600m2 in size,
and located at a strategic point commanding a view
over the eamp de Túria district and the natural pass
through the earraixet ravine. lt is bordered by a d efensive waU from whose northern face a square-based
watchtower rises. Within the walls, seventeen compartments are distributed on either side of a narrowish
central street. The grow1dfloor underwent no modifications since its initial construction at the end of the 5th e
IK until the beginning of the 2nd e BC. A study of the
articles found in each of the compartments reveals that
complementary activities were carried out in each, and
the entire settlement can be considered as an outpost
whose major concern was the defence and control of the
outlying territory.
123
[page-n-124]
"Vase of the Warriors". A lebes decorated with a procession of infantrymen
and riders from El Tossal de Sant Miquel.
Between the end of the 3rd e and the beginning of the 2nd e oc. Height 42.6cm.
124
[page-n-125]
Lampbase-sh¡¡ped ceramic
guitas from El Toss11l
de Sélnt Miquel.
Oil o r perfume holder.
Early 2nd e uc. Maximum
diameler ll.Ocm.
Kala lhos or "top hat" jar, decorated
with scenes of dancers and
musicians, from El Tossal de Sm1t
Miquel. Between lhe end of the 3rd
e and the beginning of the 2nd e uc.
1Jeight 14.0cm.
125
[page-n-126]
ehild burial in an urn fotmd under the noor of a
house in the eastellet de Bernabé settlement (Liíria).
4th e oc. Urn diameter 31.2cm.
Black-va rnished, foot-shaped ceramic
guttas from the Puntal dels Llops
settlement. Oil or perfume holder.
3rd e oc. Length 16.0cm.
126
[page-n-127]
lberian ceramic wares with painted decorations, characteristic of Camp de Túria
settle me nts (Pun tal deis Llops, Castellet de Bernabé and El Tossal de Sant Miquell.
3rd-2nd C BC. Height of tallest piece 33.2cm.
127
[page-n-128]
.,
..
·,.
,., .
'
l•' ...
,.,
'1 .
•'
'
•
•
~.'
'• ~
\.
\
"';o
.
..... ' ·
\;· .
,.
l ~:
't
\
~·.
~
"'
.....
~~ ..
~·.,"'
'
'""
.. ,
'\.
.·
..
[page-n-129]
Funerary stela stone with
lberian inscription, from
Si narcas. 1st C oc.
Height 78.3an .
Room Vfl co111ni11s n collectio11 of Tberin11 objects benri11g
writi11g nnd grnphics, comprisiug iucised lend fnblets from Ln Bnstidn de les
Alwses iu Moixenf, El Tossnl de Sn111 Miquel i11 Llfrin, Los Villm·es i11 Cnudete de lns Fue11tes,
nud Pico de los Ajos i11 Yátovn, nmoug olhers; bro11ze objects benriug writi11g from Sn11l Autoui
de Betxf, texts 011 cernmics fro m El Tossnl de Snut Miquel i11 L/b·in, gmffili 011 cernmics imported
fro m Tossnl de In Cnln i11 Beuidorm, 1111 iucised boue from Ln Pelin de lns Mnjndns i11 El Toro, nud
tl1e ftmernry stele from Siunrcns, nmoug other objects.
VII. IBERIAN WRITING
Iberian is a pre-Tndo-European language grouped
amongst Mediterranean linguistic variants, showing
certain similarities and parentage with the Berber,
SaJ"dinian a11d Etruscan languages, ru1d with today's
Basque, which is the only pre-Indo-Europeru1 language
still spoken on the Iberian península. The first signs of
language being written in this region date from the 4th
century se. The symbols used in lberiru1 writing are
derived from the eastern Mediterranean, from the
Phoenician-Greek alphabet, adapted to the phonetic
values of the Iberian language, resulting in what was
originally a semi-syllabic alphabet. Our ignorance of the
language spoken by the Iberians prevents us from
translating their texts, but some proper 11ames, potter's
marks and property signs are known.
Most documents appear to ha ve been written in one
of three dilferent alphabets: the Southern alphabet,
ranging across eastern Andalusia, the region of the
present-day provinces of Albacete, Murcia ru1d Alicru1te;
the Eastern alphabet, extending along the coastal p lains;
and the lOiúc alphabet, linúted to the district arotmd
Alcoi westwards to the Alicante coast.
Our most useful sources of information are lead
tablets wlúch ha ve never been translated, but appear to
be lists of figures, ie, they are probably administrative
files of accounts. At presentas many as forty lead tablets
have been docwnented; of note among these are the
series found at settlements such as La Serreta in Alcoi,
Punta d'Orleyl in Vall d'Uixó, Los Vi.llru·es in Caudete de
las Fuentes, La Bastida de les Alcuses in Moixent, or
Pico de los Ajos i11 Yátova.
The narrative form of Iberiru1 writing seems to have
appeared towards tl1e end of the 3rd century BC, when
the same artists who painted figmines on their ceranúc
wares present explanations of the events tl1ey depict by
writi11g dedications or by sig:túng their works. Tlús
eminently urban style of craftsmanslúp enables us to
associate the rise of writing with tl1e development of the
city and the urban aristocracy.
129
[page-n-130]
Lead sheet inscribed with letters o( the
easlern lberian alphabet, found
at the Pico de los Ajos seulemen t (Yá tova).
4th C BC. length 18.8cm.
130
[page-n-131]
Lead sheet inscribed with letters of the
eastern lberian alphabet, found at the
Pico de los Ajos settlement (Yátova).
4th e oc. Length 18.8cm.
lberian text from GUDUR DEISDEA
with painted battle scenes on a vase
from El Tossal de Sant Miquel.
Between the end of the 3rd e a nd the
beginning of the 2nd e BC
131
[page-n-132]
[page-n-133]
Small treasure horde found
at the Los Vi llares Jberian
settlement. Bronze and
sil ver coins, gold ring and
sil ver earrings in a ceramic
jar. Between the end of the
3rd e and the begimling of
the 2nd e oc.
1-le ight of jar 7.8cm.
Room V11I is tfeuotetf lo Tberiaulllllllismnfics, witll n display
o protfucls f rom four Vnleucin11 mi11tiug centres: Arse-Sng1111fum, Sailif
Xiltivn, Keli11-Los Vi/lares n11tf Kili. 111 atftfitio11, a 1111111l1er of otller obj ecls relnletf lo trntfi11g
acliuilies are show11, plus lile cnc/1e of Los Villnres i11 Cnutfete de lns Fue11tes, Íllclutfi11g 1111
Ampurinu tfrnc/mm, Cnrtllngi11inll coi11 aurl n sampli11g of lberinu coiu f rom vnrious mi11ts nrouutf
lile Peuiusuln.
VIII. IBERIAN COINS
Around 600 years befare the bírth of Christ,
coinage was first made on the Turkish coast of the
Aegean sea, but it took two anda half centuries for it
to be minted in sorne of the settlements on the Iberian
península. Coins were simply another form of
exchange, but they were eventually to become more
important than all others. During the 5th to the 3rd
centuries BC there is evidence in Iberian settlements
of coinage minted in Syracuse, Messana, MassaJia
and Emporion. At this time, coins played a subordinate or practically insignificant role in exchanges,
as barter or gross metal were t11e predominant means
of exchange.
The frrst coins m:inted in t11e Valencian region
carne from Arse (Sagunt) during the second hall of
the 3rd century se. A little la ter coins were minted in
Saitabi (Xativa). As of the 2nd century se workshops
in the towns of Kelin (Los Villal'es in Caudete de las
Fuentes) and Kili (unidentified with a specific
settlement to date) carne into existence. The Second
Punic War between Romans and Carthaginians
served as the cause of a substantial expansion of the
use of coins in the region. What seems to have been
an enormous quantity of coinage was put into
circulation as payment of war costs, and as wages
(stipendium) paid to mercenaries. Arse and Saitnbi
were the centres of important issues of coin, with
high production levels in the 2nd and 1st centuries
se . Both made silver coins, although Valencian mints
with the exception of Arse were mostly involved in
producing bronze coins called ases and divisores, ie,
money used in small transactions. Pl'll'allel to these
mintings from Iberian production centres came three
issues of bronze coin froro tl1e newly founded Roman
city of valiant soldier veterans called Valen tia.
133
[page-n-134]
Amptuian fractional coins from El Collado de la
Cova del Cava JI (Liíria). Face and back. 4th C BC.
Weight O.Sgr, diam. 1.1cm. Photo Garcia Rosell.
In the Iberian world, coins were accepted far
beyond the territory in which they were originally
issued, being used as currency in many different
centres of population. During the 2nd and 1st
centuries BC the Iberian people in the region of
Valencia used coins from a wide variety of minting
centres. Bronze coins made in Valencian towns
134
possibly comprised as muchas one half of the money
supply, with the remainder coming from Rome and
other Iberian cities such as Cástufo, lknfeskett, Bofsknn
and Ke/se. The need for silver coin was covered i11
part by production at Arse, but mostly by coi11
brought from Rome and other ntints on the
península.
[page-n-135]
Drachma from Arse (Sagunt)
Face and back. End of 3rd e BC. Weigh t 3.4gr,
diam. 1.7cm.
Bilingual As from Saiti-Saetabi (Xiltiva)
Face and back. M id-1s t e BC. Weight 16gr,
diam. 2.8cm.
Monetary unit from Kili (mint u nlocated as
yet, but probably in the interior of Valencia
province). Face ¡md back. Mid -2nd e llC.
Weight 11.7gr, diam. 2.5cm.
Monetary unit from Kelin {Los Villa res). Face
and back. Mid -2nd e BC.
Weight 9.4gr, diam. 2.7cm.
135
[page-n-136]
f\
......
..,..,
• ,,
:¡
t
•
[page-n-137]
Sculpted marble female
form found al Valencia la
Vclla (Riba-roja de Túria).
2nd -3rd C AD.
Height 30.0cm.
/~00111 IX correspo11ds lo tire l
ln11ds toere romn11ized, witlr a specinl focus 011 certni11 exceptio11nl nrclreologicnl siles s11dr ns
Edetn-Ufrin, l.n Prmln de 1'11/n i11 Cul/ern mrd El Pln de Nndnl i11 Ribn-rojn, tire In/ter two pertni11i11g lo Jire e11d of tire period. A111o11g tire mnlerinls of 110/e nre Romn11 cemmics mrd bronzes
frolll vnrious sites, n11d iu pnrtic11lnr, a bro11ze stnl11e of Apol/o fouud al Piuedo.
IX. THE ROMAN EPOCH
For Iberian folk, the process of romanization involved eating, drinking, dressing, building houses and
burning funeral pyres as the Romans did. This new way
of life, ranging from the production of goods for commercial purposes, to speaking Latin, celebrating Roman
feasts and worshipping Roman deities, and organizing
political and administrative powers following the Roman legal system, began quite early in the coastal regions of Valencia. As of the 3rd century BC commercial
contacts were maintained with Italy and Sicily. Between
219 and 202 BC it is known that Sngttnflllll was won over
to the Roman side in the Second Punic War. In the aftermath, ruined areas were restored in Roman style, with
the incorporation of Roman-type buildings. If fact,
Sngunt11m became a symbol of friendship and fidelity
for the Romans. In 138 BC the founding of Vnlentin south
of Snguntum reinforced Roman influence over the local
fberian population. After this, the farming of coastal
lands, with organized irrigation and the improvement
of land and sea links, contributed toan increase in living
standards among the popu lation spread a long the coast.
Cities, of course, were the centrepoints for the
organization of Roman municipal areas (territorium
ttrbis). Valencia's economic and strategic distribution
had already been organized in preceding centuries by
the fberians. This geographical phenomenon was described by Pliny as a Regio.
In the Regio of Valencia we know of the existence of
eight Roman cities: Lesera, a city founded during the
HJgh Empire, is identified with a settlement at Moleta
deis Frares, in the hinterlands near Forcall; Saguntum, a
federated city since the Second Punic War until in
Augustus' day it became a t111111icipium of Roman
137
[page-n-138]
PREHISTORY MUSEUM
dtizens; Edeta, a Jmtnicipium under Latin law, at the site
of what is now the town of Llíria; Valentia, a Latín
colony founded in 138 se and later re-populated under
Augustus with soldiers licenced from the Roman army,
explaining the mention made in inscriptions in two
ordines: Vnlentini veternni et veteres; Saitabi, a municipium under Latín law in the epoch of Augustus, is the
present-day town of Xativa, then famous, according to
Pliny, for its fabulous linen goods; Dianium, the Roman
city of Dénia, also deserved a mention by Pliny as a
stípendiwn-payer wlúch only la ter rose to the rank of a
municipiwn¡ Lucentumhas been identified as the Roman
municipimn built at Tossal de Manises near Alicante;
lastly, Ilici, is recogtúzed as the Roman colony fow1ded
at Elx by Caesar or Augustus.
For the Romans, territorium was a juridical concept
subject to fiscalization and the authority of a magistrate,
in addition to being a geographical notion. The centrepoint was the city itself, whlch controlled the surrounding territory of farm and pasturelands, and the population of the territory was structured into groups of varying size, each of which comprised production units for
farming and fishing which were usually called villne
rusticne. Water was captured and chatmelled to cities in
large-scale hydraulic engineering feats, of which sorne
are still standing today. Aqueducts such as that of Peña
Cortada (Calles-Chelva, la Serranía district), subterranean channels and other achievements enabled Roroan engineers to bridge geographical accidents and
keep the Latín waters flowing smoothly.
Founded in 138 se, Valentía ranks as the first fully
Roman city founded in the region of Valencia, and one
of the first in Hispania, as the península was known by
Roman geographers. Since its beginning, it was an important urban nucleus, with thermal baths, a forum,
defensive walls, and public buildings. It minted its own
coin on which the Latin alphabet was used. The city was
destroyed by Pompey in 75 se, and was reborn in the 1st
century AD to become, along with flici, one of the only
two Roman colonies located in the Valencian region.
Prívate homes often seem to have had a luxurious aspect. An extensive cemetery was located in the southeastern section of the city (present-day Central Market),
and along the stretch of the main southern road out of
138
the city, the Augustus Road, (calle San Vicente Mártir).
One curious fact, extant in very few cities of the Empire,
is that citizens were divided into two groups, the
veternni and the veteres, a division that corresponded to
two different times of repopulation.
The Pinedo Ap ollo was found in the waters off
Pinedo beach on December 8th 1963. Four divers discovered the sculpture of a recfuúng nude youth identified as the god Apollo, son of Zeus and Leto, and therefore one of the major deities in the Olympian pantheon.
The final destínation of the sculpture has never been.discovered, as it was probably on board a ship that
wrecked off the coast. It may have been i.ntended for a
religious or civic building, or been commissioned for an
ttrban or rustic villa. Judging from its similarity with
other sculptures, the Pinedo A pollo is probably from the
Imperial epoch.
Civitas Edetanorum, present-day Llíria, was a city
under Latín law located around the lúll known as El
Tossal de Sant Miquel. Its name conserves that of the ancient lberian capital. lt is therefore an example of the
transfer of the population from the slopes of the lúll to
the area around its skirts on flatter land. A two-building
public thermal complex in the proximity of a temple invites speculation on the religious and salutary functions
of tlús area near Romanized Edeta, perhaps coinciding
with a temple to the Nymphs. One section of the road
whlch seems to have been bordered by tombs indicates
that it had adopted the usual layout of necropolises typical of Roman urban conglomerations. And the discovery
of a number of wells choked with ceramic tableware and
kitchenware seems to evidence sorne sort of Roman ritual. To all appearances, Edeta was a flourishing city
between the age of the Flavians a.nd the 5th century AD.
Literature tells us of the social consequence of certain
personages having been born in Edetn. Near the end of
the 1st century AD, Marcus Valerius Propinquo Grattio
Cerealis became the Flnmen of the Hispanic Citerior province, and Marcus Cornelius Curatio Nigrino Materno
t>
Pinedo Apollo. Bronze Roman statue found off the Valencia coast
at Pinedo. Copy of Hellenistic
model dated between the 1st e and
the first half of the 2nd C AD.
Height 145.0cm.
[page-n-139]
[page-n-140]
f-lispanic terra sigillata bowl, and common Roman
'
jar and stirrup vases (rom Pl Between the end of the 1st and the middle
o( the 2nd e AD. lleight o( tallest piece 10.5cm.
e
Small bronze figurine possibly
representing éUl Eros, from the funerary
monuments o( Edeta (Liíria).
1st-2nd CAD.
Height 16.2cm.
140
[page-n-141]
ltalian terra sigillata bowl from
Arezzo, found at
Empúries (Girona).
End of 1st C AD. Mouth
diam. 15.0cm.
achieved promotions to successive posts as procurator
to become one of the highest ranking procurators in
Roman politics.
Ceramics were the materials most frequently used
by Romans in their daily üves. In addition to table jars
made in fine metals, there were well-made ceramic jars
whkh are known as terra sigillata, a name they were
given because of the manufacturer's stamp, or sigillum,
inscribed on the bottom of the inside surface. Occasionally, these were decorated with moulded motifs
in relief. These jars were produccd in large pottery
workshops and were marketed throughout the Empire.
During the entire Imperial Age, production centres of
these jars varied, and in consequence, so did theu·
technical and decorative features.
Apart from the jars used at the table, the Romans
made other ceramic recipients and objects to contain,
prepare or cook food. Because of the use they were put
to, they were mainly lacking in decoration and quality
finishes. There were normaUy made in places clase to
consumer centres, in order to keep costs to a mínimum.
ln the region of Valencia, a number of kilns where these
goods were fired have been discovered.
The Roman monetary system was a tri-metallic system (gold, silver and copper) with a fixed correspon-
dence between al! coins, which !asted w1til the 3rd
century AD: 1 aureus = 25 denarü = 100 sesterce = 200
dupondii = 400 asses = 800 semes = 1600 quadrantes.
The fundamental characteristic of a Ucoins in the Roman
world was the use of the Emperor's portrait, which was
the most powerfuJ symbol of authority, present in aU
economic transactions throughout the Empire. The
quality of these coins (weight and alloys) and the size of
the issue varied over time in accordance with the needs
of the state, which eventually attempted to produce
more coins with the same limited amount of metal,
leading to inflation. The progressive increase in prices
brought about the elimination of cou1s of smaller
denomination, making sesterce and dupondü the
commonest coins in the 2nd century a11d the first half of
the 3rd century se.
Throughout al! Hispania supplies of bronze ran out
during the second half of the 1st century se, in answer
to which colonies and municipia began minting their
own coins in bronze. !J1 the Valencian region, only the
citics of Ilíci (colony) and Sagunfw11 (mwúcipium) had
their own mints, but production levels were low,
insufficient to cover the needs of a growing urbru1 population. Following the reign of Caligula, cities Íl1
Hispania stopped producillg coin. As of this time, al!
141
[page-n-142]
1>
Statera or Roman sea le in
bronze from
Vélez Blanco (Almería).
Length 34.3cm.
Roman lanterns from Empúries. 1st-3rd C
Diam. of largest piece 8.9cm.
provinces in· the western Mediterranean had a unified
monetary system, as aU coins in circulation carne from
Imperial mints. In the middle of the 3rd century there
was a progressive deterioration of the Roman monetary
system, wlúch never again experienced the stability of
the preceding centuries.
Roman society w1derwent a slow but progressive
transformation during the last few centuries of the
Empire. Following the division of the Empire by
Theodosius in the year 395 AD, the disintegration of the
western Empire in 476 brought a new political and
organizational reality. The creation of the German kingdoms in western Europe (Valencia became part of the
Visigoth realm), however, did not bring an end to the
historical tradition and the values of Roman society
tmdcr the Lower Empire.
During this period Christianity and the Church
played a predominant role in the political and ideoIogical Ufe of society, completely displacing the pagan
deities of the 4th century and replacing the Imperial
political system in U1e 5th. In major cities, where urban
life had remained active, episcopal centres began to
exercise real control over the territory, intimately linked
as they were with the new civil powers.
La Punta de l' llia (Cuila, la Ribera Baixa district)
was cxcavated in the years 1955, 1957 and 1966. Documented remains include a series of defensive waUs, a
religious building and three comparh11ents devoted to
storage space. Ancient texts, cluonology and the reli-
142
AO.
gious dtaracter of U1e materials found here make it
reasonable to suppose Utat this was the site where the
bishop Justinian commanded a monastery to be built in
memory of the arrival of St Vicente the Martyr's body.
Among the notable materials found at La Punta de l'illa
are amphoras, recipients fuU of oil from Africa and
Syria, and wine from oriental markets such as Palestine
and the lands around the Black Sea. The settlement was
abandoned arow1d the middle of the 6th century or
somewhat later.
El Pla de Nadal (Riba-roja de Túria, el Camp de
T úria district) contains a building from U1e days of the
Visigoths wlúch is one of the most wúque finds in
Valencian archaeology in recent years. It is a civil building built in the 7th century that must ha ve been a nobleman's home, to judge from its proportions. It is the
oldest building to use the horseshoe arch in the region
of Valencia. The construction is presided by a central
nave wlúch is accessed through a small portal wiU1 four
buth-esses on eacl1 side. Tlús bay is flanked by two
angular towers. FundamentaUy, the building stiU preserves its southernmost fac;ade, as the rest was destroyed due to the transformation of the terrain into
arable cropland. At this settlement over 800 architectural items have been found, the majority of wlúch
are decorated with bevelled-edged relief work showing
a tlueefold U1eme: plant vol u tes, tri folia or lotus flowers
and scallops.
[page-n-143]
[page-n-144]
Bronze canteen girth
decorated with glass matrix,
from the Belgida area.
2nd-3rd e AD.
Width 6.0cm.
Bronze canteen girth decorated with glass matrix,
from the BeJgida area. 2nd-3rd e AO.
Width 6.0cm.
144
[page-n-145]
Visigoth cera míe bottles
from the Pego area.
6th-7th AD.
Height 25.5cm.
e
f·
l
\
eeramic jar a nd bottle
from Vis igoth burial s ites
in Els Xa rcons (Montserrat)
a nd El Romaní (Sollana).
6th-7th AD.
Bottle height 26.Scm.
e
145
[page-n-146]
Bronze Visigoth cross
from Punta de I' Ula (eullera).
6th e AD. Height 15.8cm.
Amphora from Palestine found at
Punta d e l' nla. 6th e AO.
Height 42.0cm.
146
[page-n-147]
Visigoth capitnl in Cornithian trndi tion,
from Pla d e Nndnl ( Riba -roja de T(trin).
7th C AD. llcighl 29.0cm.
147
[page-n-148]
[page-n-149]
<1
Dinar from AI-Zahir, coined
at al-Mansuriya in the year
417 of the Hegira (1026-27).
Fro m the Las Suertes
treasure (Sinarcas).
Weig ht 4.03gr., diam. 2.4cm.
Room X slrows a smnll c:oiu c:ollecliou dnliug from nfler tire
Romn11 nge. lf i11cludes ene/res formd in n wide ooriely of siles, suclr as
0/ioo, Si~tnrcns, Mo~tforle, Be11ijnir6 de In Vnlldig11n, Vnle11cin, Requeun or Xtllioo. 11re coins
correspo11d lo tire Moorislr, Clrristin11 nnd modem nges, nnd lrnve bee11 left 011 permn11e11t deposit
al tire Museum.
X. NUMISMATICS:
VALENCIAN FINDS IN THE 10TH-11TH CENTURIES
People accumulated wealth in a number of forms.
Among these, coins minted in gold, silver, bronze and
copper were a sign of pertaining to the more well-todo social classes. Before the creation of banks, the
easiest way to store money was to bury it or keep it in
a safe hiding place. Sorne coin collections set aside for
special uses, or perhaps as a financia! fund for the
future, were never recovered by the owners. Surfacing
much Iater in time, they can now be called treasure
hordes or caches, sometimes containing valuable coins
and objects. Occasionally, treasure hordes contained
very valuable coins purposely safeguarded by the
owners, whereas at others there were simple collections of frequently used coins, such as the petty
cash box used ata tavern.
During the Visigoth reign the monetary system was
somewhat lop-sided, with an emphasis on gold-coins
called triens. These had a high value, as reports affirm
tl1at three gold coins sufficed for a man to feed himself
for an entire year, but this system raises doubts about
the monetization of Visigoth society. The start of the
Andalusian Moorish reign brought about a significant
change in the monetary aspect, bringing back a stable
tri-metallic system which was finally comparable to
that of the Roman High Empire having disappeared
five centuries before.
Valencian Moorish society was fairly well monetized, with gold coins (dinar), silver coins (dirhem)
and coppers (felús). Coin was issued by the rulers to
finance war expenses, administration, municipal
buildings, etc. and when it finally got to the hands of
the farmers, who sold their produce in exchange for
money, it was then reincorporated to the state via tax
collection, closing the circle in which coins were an
instrument of fiscal control. They were also used in
trade, as shown by the fact that sU coi11s were sornever
times fragmented into smaUer triangles to facilitate
local small-scale exchanges.
149
[page-n-150]
Diner de tem coined in Valencia
in 1247-49 under Jaime l.
From !he treasure of Lhe Moorish Queen
(Ben ifairó de la Valldigna).
Face and back.
Weighl 0.71gr.. diam. I.Scm.
Ph01o: A lcálllara.
Diner de tem coined
in Barcelona in 1258 under Jaime l.
Treasure of the Moorish Queen.
Face and back.
Weight 1.04gr., diam. 1.8cm.
Photo: Akilntara.
Diuer coined during
the War of the Gem1anías,
in Xativa in 1521-23. Treasure of Santa
Anna (Xiltiva).
Face and back.
Weight 0.5gr., diam. 1.3cm.
Photo: García Rosell.
S-escudo coin minted under
Fernando VI in Popayiln (Colombia)
in 1758. Requena Treasure.
Face and back.
Weight 27.0gr., d iam. 3.6cm.
150
[page-n-151]
PREHISTORY MUSEUM
The Elca treasure (Oliva, la Safor district) is
composed of dirhams from the age of the Caliphate,
between 933-951 AD. The coins in the Las Suertes
treasure (Sinarcas, la Plana de Utiel-Requena district)
were minted between the years 331-428 of the Hegira,
ie, from 942-1037 in Christian reckoning. The
Monforte treasure (riddle Vinalopó district), stored
away sorne time in the 12th-13th e, is mainly
composed of Almohad dirhams.
In 1247, Jaime I minted U1e first coin belonging
exclusiveJy to U1e Kingdom of Valencia, and it was
called the mi or diner de tem. lt was a copper/silver
coin contairung about 25% of silver with a weight of
approximately one gram. Despite the fact that this
Valencian coin was the only legal tender in the
Kingdom, finds from Utis age (13th-15th C) confirm
that the money actually in use ca me from outside the
realm. As of 1369, gold florins began to be minted in
Valencia, and when King Juan T (1387-1896) inaugurated the minting of silver coins of precise
weight, the mi d'argent, wiili a value of "one wage and
a half" (= 18 diners or mis menuts), this equivalency
was later maintained until the 17th century. The
monetary system in the Kingdom of Valencia was: 1
lliurn (pound) =20 so11s =240 diners =480 mallesfobols,
but only the diners and obols existed as actual coin,
whereas the rest were simply units of measUJ·ement.
The Moorish Queen's treasure (Benifairó de la
Valldigna, la Safor district) was found in ilie so-called
casUe of the "Reina Mora", containing a collection of
copper and silver coins minted by Jaime 1 in Barcelona
and Valencia, which were hidden at the end of the 13th
century. The treasure of Santa Anna (Xativa, la
Costera district) was made up of small-denomination
copper coin with no specia l legends which are supposed to ha ve been minted in Xativa itseJf at the time
of the Germanías revolts under Carlos 1 (1519-22). The
Riba-roja de Túria treasure (el Camp de Túria
district) contains Valencian dinerets, or "small dinars",
many of whlch appear to be falsifications. These were
hidden sometin1e in the second half of the 17th century, as the most modern coins in tlus collection are
attributed toCarlos II (1665-1700).
During ilie 17th century in the Kingdom of Valencia falsifications of diners/menuts seem to have been
widely prevalent. The literature of ilie day attributed
these to the Moriscos (converted Moors), just before
their expulsion from Spain, but the Christians also
made counterfeit coin and continued todo so throughout the century. The dinar or menut was tl1e smallest
denomination coin of all those minted in Valencia, and
falsifications seem to have been made in a variety of
Iocations, as evidenced by finds in numerous caves. Of
all those known to exist today, materials have been
found in the Cova deis Estudiants (Naquera, el Camp
de Turia district), the Soterraña cave (Chella, la Canal
de Navarrés district), and the Cova de 1' Águila
(Picassent, l'Horta district).
The Requena treas ure was found in an old house
belonging to the Ferrer de Plegamans fanUly of Requena and comprises coins worth 8, 4 and 2 escudos,
mjnted on the península and also overseas. ChronoIogically, they cover an ample period, as the oldest
coin is a piece of eight from the days of Ferdinand VI
(r.1746-1759) and the most recent is an 80-real piece
from the reign of Isabella 11 (r.1833-68). They must
have represented the family savings, and provide
information on fue origin of gold coins in circulation in
Valencian lands at the time, enabUng us to appreciate
the value of production and supplies from American
mints.
151
[page-n-152]
1>
Ceremonial kero with polychrome decoration. Central
American Presto-Punto culture between 800-1200.
Height 17.0cm. Photo: Liébana.
In addition to the materials on exhibit in the rooms of
the museum described in this book, the Prehistory
Museum has other notable archaeological collections
which will be placed on display in the future.
[page-n-153]
[page-n-154]
[page-n-155]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
La Labor del Servido de Investigación Prehistórica y s u
Museo. Ann ua l re ports of the Management drawn up
s uccessively by l. BALLESTER (1927 to 1949), D. FLETCHER
(1950 to 1981), E. PLA (1982 to 1986) and B. MARTÍ (sh1ce
1987). ln addition to being included in the Annual Report of
the "Diputación de Valencia" (provincial council), reprmts
are available from 1927 to 1983, except those pertaining to
the years 1955, 1956 and 1957.
B. MARTf: Museo de Prehistorin de In Diputació11 de Valencin.
Vol. l. Valencia, 1992.
L. PERTCOT: "Isidro Ballester Tormo". Archivo de Prehistorin
Levn11tinn, 10, 1952, pp. 9-19.
E. PLA: "Dommgo Fletcher Valls". En Homenaje n Domingo
Fletcher Valls. Valencia, 1984.
M. SÁNCHEZ: El Museo de Prel1istorin. Valencia, 1980.
Actividades d e la S.I.P. Review of excavations and
explorations undertaken by the Prehistory Research Service
from 1929 to 1970, compiled by E. PLA in volumes of
Archivo de Prehistorin Levnutiun, ll, from 1946; Vl, fro m
1957; IX, from 1961; XI, from 1966; a nd Xlll, from1972.
J. ALCÁCER: Cntálogo de In Colección Federico de Motos eu el
Museo de Prehistorin de Vnleucin. Various works by the S.I.P.,
43. Valencia, 1972.
H. BONET, M.M. LLORENS y M.J. DE PEDRO: Uu Segle
d' Arqueologin Vnleucinnn. Valencia, 1991.
E. TORMO Y MONZÓ: Valencin: los Museos. Gufas-Cntálogo.
Valencia, 1932.
For fur ther information o n studies on Valencian
Prehistory and Archaeology, consult the various volumes of
Repertorio de Bibliografía Arqueológica Valenciana. Vols.
1a V y VIl a X por D. FLETCHER y E. PLA., con la colaboración de C. SENTANDREU (vol. In) y S.BRU (vol. IV); vol. VI
por R. ENGUIX. En Trabajos Varios del S.l.P. 13, 14, 21, 31, 37,
48, 58 y 74. Valencia; 1951 a 1990.
Catálogo de la Colección Vela (Pre historia Americana).
Valencia, 1964.
D. FLETCHER: Museo de Prehistorin de In Diputnción Provincinl
de Vnlencin. Valencia 1974.
And for general works in collaboration with various
speciaHsts:
D. FLETCHER y E. PLA: El Museo del Servicio de Iuvestigncióu
Prehistórica de In Diputación Provincial de Vnlencin. Zaragoza,
1953.
Aetes de l es Jom ades d' Arqueología d' Altas del Pi.
Conselleria de Cultura de la Generalitat Valenciana.
Valencia, 1995.
D. FLETCHER y E. PLA: Cincuenta mios de actividades del
Servicio de lnvestignción Prehistórica (1927-1977). Trabajos
Arqueología del País Valenciano: Panorama y Perspectivas.
Universidad de Alicante, 1985.
Varios del S.LP., 57. Valencia, 1977.
Historia del Pueblo Valenciano. Vol. l. Valencia, 1988.
B. MARTf: "Enrie Plan Ballester». En Homeunfge n Enrie Pla
Bnllester. Valencia, 1987.
Nuestra His toria. Vol. 1. Va lencia, 1980.
155
[page-n-156]
o
\
•
...
\
\
PALAEOLITHIC AND MESOLITHIC
NEOLITHIC, AENEOLITHIC
BRONZE
6
\
o
\..
'·
IBERIAN
ROMAN, VISIGOTH
•
COIN FINDS
[page-n-157]
ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES IN VALENCIA
HAVING PROVIDED MATERIAL FOR MUSEUM EXHIBITS
•l. Vilafranca
Ereta del Castellar (Bronze)
•2. Alcala de Xivert
La Solivella (Iberian)
• 3. Oropesa
Oropesa la Vella (Bronze)
Submarine find (Roman)
• 4. Almassora
El Boverot (lberian)
• 5. Vila-real
Vil·la Filomena (Aeneolithic)
• 6. Betxí
Sant Antoni (Iberian)
• 7. El Toro
Peña de las Majadas (Iberian)
• 8. Teresa
Pena la Dueña (Bronze)
• 9. Castellnovo
Torre del Mal Paso
(Aeneolithic, Roman)
• lO. La Vall d'Uixó
Punta d'Orleyl (Iberian)
• 11. Andilla
Covacha de Llatas
(Epipalaeolithic)
Castillarejo de los Moros
(Bronze)
12. Villar del Arzobispo
Ptmtal de Cambra (Bronze)
La Seña (lberian)
•13. Castielfabib
Los Santos (Roman)
•14. Sinarcas
Epigraplúc fu1d (lberian)
Las Suertes (Cou1 find,
10th-11th C)
•15. Losa del Obispo
La Atalayuela (Bronze)
•16. Pedralba
Epigraplúc fmd (Roman)
• 17. Casmos
Cab~l de la Casa de Camp
(Bronze)
•18. Llíria
Puntal Sobre la Rambla
Castellarda (Aeneolithic)
El Tossal de Sant Miquel
(Iberian)
Castellet de Bernabé (Iberian)
La Monravana (Iberian)
El Puntalet (Iberian)
Penya Roja (Iberian)
Cova del Cavall (Iberian)
Collado de la Cova del
Cavall (Iberian)
Edeta (Roman)
•19. Benaguasil
Uometa del Tio Figuetes
(Bronze)
• 20. Olocau
Puntal deis Uops (Bronze, Iberian)
La Cargadora (Roman)
• 21. Naquera
Els Trencalls (Bronze)
Cova dels Estudiants
(Com find, 17th-C}
•22. Sagunt
Com núnt of Arse (lberian)
•23. Rafelbunyol
Els Germanells (Bronze)
•24. El Puig
Submarme fmd (Roman)
•25. Paterna
Liorna de Betxí (Bronze)
Despenyaperros (Iberian)
•26. Riba-roja de Túria
Valéncia la Vella (Roman)
Pla de Nada! (Visigoth)
Coin find (17th-C)
• 27. Vilamarxant
El Gargao (Bronze)
• 28. Caudete de las Fuentes
Los Villares (lberian, Roman)
Mint of Kelill (lberian)
• 29. Villargordo del Cabriel
Cueva del Puntal del Horno
Ciego (Iberian)
• 30. Requena
Coin find (18th-19th C)
• 31. 01este
El Castillarejo (Bronze)
• 32. Oliva
Cueva de la Ladera del
Castillo (Aeneolitlúc)
•33. Torís
La Carénda (Iberian)
• 34. Torrent
Muntanyeta de Cabrera
(Bronze)
•35. Aldaia
Ereta deis Moros (Roman)
• 36. Rocaiort
Cova de Rocaiort
(Aeneolithic)
• 37. Valéncia
Valentía (Roman)
Mint of Valentía (Roman)
• 38. Pinedo (Valéncia)
Submarine find (Roman)
• 39. El Saler (Valéncia)
Submarme find (lberian)
• 40. Picassent
Cova de 1'Aguila
(Coin find, 17th-C)
• 41. Montserrat
El Castellet (Bronze)
• 42. Yátova
Pico de los Ajos (lberian)
• 43. Dos Aguas
Cueva de la Cocina
(Epipalaeolithic)
•44. Zarra
Las Peñas (lberian)
•45. Ayora
Castellar de Meca (lberian)
•46. Navarrés
Ereta del Pedrega1
(AeneoUthic)
•47. Sumadlrcer
Senda Vedada rock
shelter (Upper
Palaeolithic)
•48. Carcaixent
Cova de Xarta (Aeneolithic)
Ca u Raboser (Aeneolithic)
Benibaire Alt (Roman)
• 49. Alzira
Cova dels Gats (Aeneolithic)
Cova de les Aranyes
(Aeneolithic)
Muntanya Assolada (Bronze)
• SO. Benicuii-PoUnya de
Xúquer Sima de la Pedrera
(Aeneolithic)
51. Corbera
Cova de la Mallada Verda
(Aeneolithic)
• 52. Cullera
Cova del Volcán del Faro
(Upper Palaeolithic)
A1t del Fort (lberian)
Punta de l'llla (Visigoth)
• 53. Chella
Cueva de la Soterraña
(Com fmd, 17th-O
• 54. Anna
Covacha Barrilla
(AeneoUthic)
• SS. Estubeny
Cova del Barranc de les
Meravelles (Aeneolithic)
• 56. Manuel
Les Foies (Roman)
• 57. Xativa
Cova Negra (Middle
Palaeolithic)
Penya de Sant Diego
(Bronze)
Mint of Saiti (Coin find)
SantaAtma
(Com fu1d, 16tll-C}
• 58. Benifairó de la Valldigna
Castell de la Rema Mora
(Cou1 filld, 13th-C)
• 59. Tavemes de la Valldigna
Cova de Bolomor (Lower
and Middle Palaeolithic)
• 60. Barx
Cova de les Mallaetes (Upper
Palaeolitlúc, Epipalaeolitlúc)
61. Gandia
Cova del Parpalló (Upper
Palaeoli tlúc)
Cova de les Meravelles
(Aeneolithic, Roman)
• 62. El Real de Gandia
Cova del Barranc del Nano
(Aeneolithlc)
• 63. Bellús
Cova de la Petxina (Middle
Palaeolitlúc)
• 64. Guadasséquies
El Cara-sol (Roman)
• 65. Vallada
Els Horts (Roman)
• 66. Moixent
Cova del Barranc de Palop
(Aeneolitlúc)
Bastida de les A1cusses
(lberian)
Corral de Saus (lberian)
• 67. La Pont de la Figuera
Cova Santa (Bronze)
• 68. Ontil1yent
Cova del Garrofer
(Aeneoli thic)
•69. Bélgida
Beniprí (Aeneolithic)
Ca mí de 1'AUogas
(Aeneolithic)
L'Atareó (Aeneolithic)
lsolated find (Roman)
• 70. Otos
Elpigraphic fmd (Roman)
• 71. Carrícola
Cova del Barranc del
Castellet (Aeneolitlúc)
• 72. Beniarrés
Cova de l'Or (Neolithic)
• 73. Oliva
Sant Antoni (Bronze)
Elca (Coin find, 10th-C)
• 74. Albaida
La Covalta (lberian)
• 75. Bocairent
Cova de la Sarsa (Neolithic)
Tossal de Sant Antoni
(Roman)
•76. Alcoi
El Salt (Middle Palaeolithic)
Cova de la Pastora
(Aeneolithic)
Mas de Menente (Bronze)
Mola Alta de Serelles
(Bronze)
• 77. Margarida-Pianes
El Xarpolar (lberian)
• 78. Quatretondeta
Penya Roja (Aeneolithic)
• 79. RAfol d' Almúnia
Isola ted fmd (Aeneoli tlúc)
• 80. Dénia
A1t de Be1úmaquia (Iberian)
• 81. Moraira-Teulada
Cova de les Cendres
(Upper Palaeolithic,
Neolithíc)
• 82. Altea
A1tea la Vella (Iberian)
• 83. Benidorm
Tossal de la Cala (lberian,
Roman)
• 84. La Vila Joiosa
lsolated fmd (Iberian)
• 85. M01úorte del Cid
Cou1 fmd (12th-13th C)
• 86. Crevillent
Ratlla del Bubo rock shelter
(Upper Palaeolitlúc)
• 87. Sa11 Fulgencio
La Escuera
(Coin find, iberian)
157
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